D. SOCIAL CRITERIA
1. DISPLACEMENT OF PEOPLE AND PROPERTY
1.1 The Effects of Displacement
People invest a great deal of their personalities
in their homes. Resumption cannot be viewed as
simply shuffling someone from this place to
that. Even were compensation lavish, it would
still be a dislocating experience which people
would dread and resent. That dread and that
resentment has been expressed in a great many ways
in submissions made to this Inquiry.
in their homes. Resumption cannot be viewed as
simply shuffling someone from this place to
that. Even were compensation lavish, it would
still be a dislocating experience which people
would dread and resent. That dread and that
resentment has been expressed in a great many ways
in submissions made to this Inquiry.
Compensation in certain respects is far from
lavish. Where it is inadequate, displacement will
be felt the more keenly.
lavish. Where it is inadequate, displacement will
be felt the more keenly.
Certain groups within the community can be
identified as having less resilience than others:
the elderly, the divorced, the widowed, the
separated, migrant groups when separated from their
kin, and the poor. They are the more vulnerable
to isolation.
identified as having less resilience than others:
the elderly, the divorced, the widowed, the
separated, migrant groups when separated from their
kin, and the poor. They are the more vulnerable
to isolation.
1.2 What Happens to People Who have been Displaced?
No evidence was placed before this Inquiry
concerning the fate of people who have been displaced
in the past. Where did they go? Were they
disadvantaged? Did they quickly adjust? Was the
prospect of moving worse than the reality?
concerning the fate of people who have been displaced
in the past. Where did they go? Were they
disadvantaged? Did they quickly adjust? Was the
prospect of moving worse than the reality?
These are important questions. No ready answer can
be supplied. There is the suggestion that many
of those displaced by the Warringah Expressway were
‘forced to move to locations much further from the
City’.
be supplied. There is the suggestion that many
of those displaced by the Warringah Expressway were
‘forced to move to locations much further from the
City’.
1.3 Compensation for Persons Displaced
In the course of this Chapter we consider the
following: -
following: -
- First, who is entitled to
compensation?
----------(ii)----------
- Secondly, what are the Principles
for assessing that compensation?
- Thirdly, when is that compensation
payable?
1.4 Reactions to Compensation Paid
With a good deal of wisdom the SATS Report made the
following observation: -
following observation: -
"It is essential in
practical as well
as ethical terms that householders
who lose out from road development
should be fairly compensated if the
roads are to be socially acceptable.”
(emphasis added)
as ethical terms that householders
who lose out from road development
should be fairly compensated if the
roads are to be socially acceptable.”
(emphasis added)
We have been at some pains to point out that displacement
inevitably involves hardship. That hardship is needlessly
increased if compensation is less than fair.
inevitably involves hardship. That hardship is needlessly
increased if compensation is less than fair.
The principles for assessing compensation are less than
fair. A number of suggestions have been made for reform.
These suggestions are presently being considered by the
New South Wales and Commonwealth Governments.
fair. A number of suggestions have been made for reform.
These suggestions are presently being considered by the
New South Wales and Commonwealth Governments.
There is one important suggestion made by the Australian
Law Reform Commission. It deserves to be highlighted.
It has suggested compensation in the form of a 'home for
a home'. It says:-
Law Reform Commission. It deserves to be highlighted.
It has suggested compensation in the form of a 'home for
a home'. It says:-
"The present Act (The
Commonwealth Act)
provides for the payment of money as the
sole form of compensation. In some cases
this is unsatisfactory, from the viewpoint
of the former owner. Cases do arise where
an acquiring authority would be able to
offer alternative land in full or part
satisfaction of a compensation claim. It
is not realistic to require that the
Commonwealth offer resettlement in all cases
but the law should require the Minister to
endeavour to make an offer of resettlement
where this is requested by the owner. It
should a1low resettlement in satisfaction of
a claim."
provides for the payment of money as the
sole form of compensation. In some cases
this is unsatisfactory, from the viewpoint
of the former owner. Cases do arise where
an acquiring authority would be able to
offer alternative land in full or part
satisfaction of a compensation claim. It
is not realistic to require that the
Commonwealth offer resettlement in all cases
but the law should require the Minister to
endeavour to make an offer of resettlement
where this is requested by the owner. It
should a1low resettlement in satisfaction of
a claim."
---------(iii)-----------
We deal in this Report with the particular problems
experienced by people whose homes are partially
acquired. They are compensated for the partial
acquisition, but they have to suffer the presence
of the highway facility on their doorstep. They
may prefer not to do so. They may prefer their home
to be wholly acquired. At present, they are unable
to compel acquisition unless the land acquired makes
the balance 'unviable' i.e., unlivable. A mechanism
should exist whereby these people are allowed to
leave, and are adequately compensated for doing so.
A stock of houses within the area would then be
available to those people who are displaced, and who
are most reluctant to leave the area.
experienced by people whose homes are partially
acquired. They are compensated for the partial
acquisition, but they have to suffer the presence
of the highway facility on their doorstep. They
may prefer not to do so. They may prefer their home
to be wholly acquired. At present, they are unable
to compel acquisition unless the land acquired makes
the balance 'unviable' i.e., unlivable. A mechanism
should exist whereby these people are allowed to
leave, and are adequately compensated for doing so.
A stock of houses within the area would then be
available to those people who are displaced, and who
are most reluctant to leave the area.
2. PEOPLE AND PROPERTY NOT DISPLACED BUT INJURIOUSLY AFFECTED
2.1 The Issues
Three matters require consideration:-
- First, to what extent are houses
adjacent to the highway facility
adversely affected by it?
- Secondly, to what extent (if at all)
do these properties depreciate in
value?
- Thirdly, what is the law relating
to compensation for persons injuriously
affected?
There can be no doubt that properties adjacent to or
near the highway are adversely affected by the presence
of the highway, and the traffic it carries. The
chapters dealing with Air Pollution, Noise, Vibration,
Severance and Accidents make this abundantly clear.
near the highway are adversely affected by the presence
of the highway, and the traffic it carries. The
chapters dealing with Air Pollution, Noise, Vibration,
Severance and Accidents make this abundantly clear.
In the remainder of this chapter the other issues,
relating to real estate values and compensation for
injurious affection, are examined.
relating to real estate values and compensation for
injurious affection, are examined.
---------(iv)-----------
2.2 Difficulty in Demonstrating Reduction in Real Estate
Values
Values
People buy a particular home for a variety of
reasons. It is difficult to isolate one characteristic
(such as traffic) and gauge its importance in the
overall decision. If it were possible to say that
the price of the house was determined simply by the
features of the house and the amenity of the area'
then it would be possible to demonstrate that two very
similar homes located in different areas (one on a
busy highway and the other on a back street) were
differently priced because of the presence of traffic.
But the equation, unfortunately, is not that simple.
The availability of finance, the number of buyers
looking for a particular type of house at any one
time, the location of facilities, and the proximity
of schools, are all factors. The list is endless.
reasons. It is difficult to isolate one characteristic
(such as traffic) and gauge its importance in the
overall decision. If it were possible to say that
the price of the house was determined simply by the
features of the house and the amenity of the area'
then it would be possible to demonstrate that two very
similar homes located in different areas (one on a
busy highway and the other on a back street) were
differently priced because of the presence of traffic.
But the equation, unfortunately, is not that simple.
The availability of finance, the number of buyers
looking for a particular type of house at any one
time, the location of facilities, and the proximity
of schools, are all factors. The list is endless.
Yet the introduction of traffic will, to a greater
or lesser degree, introduce additional noise, air
pollution, the possibility of accidents and severance
from one’s neighbours. We all intuitively feel that
this can only operate to devalue the house. Is
this feeling capable of demonstration?
or lesser degree, introduce additional noise, air
pollution, the possibility of accidents and severance
from one’s neighbours. We all intuitively feel that
this can only operate to devalue the house. Is
this feeling capable of demonstration?
Various attempts have been made. They are examined.
Their conclusions may be attacked on a number of
grounds. The Inquiry is, nonetheless, prepared to
accept as reasonable the many complaints of residents
that it is likely that their properties will be
devalued to some extent by the proximity of a new
road, and the presence of traffic upon it.
Their conclusions may be attacked on a number of
grounds. The Inquiry is, nonetheless, prepared to
accept as reasonable the many complaints of residents
that it is likely that their properties will be
devalued to some extent by the proximity of a new
road, and the presence of traffic upon it.
2.3 Compensation for Injurious Affectation
With one exception, compensation is not payable for
adverse effects upon property caused by public works
undertaken by Government. The exception arises where
some land is taken by the Government in the execution
adverse effects upon property caused by public works
undertaken by Government. The exception arises where
some land is taken by the Government in the execution
----------(v)----------
of the project. If there is a partial acquisition,
the owner of the property is entitled to claim both
for the land resumed and the adverse effect upon
the land which is still held.
the owner of the property is entitled to claim both
for the land resumed and the adverse effect upon
the land which is still held.
The Australian Law Reform Commission and the Westlake
Commission have both condemned the present law as
unfair. Recommendations have been made for its
reform. The recommendations are presently being
considered by the Commonwealth and New South Wales
Parliaments respectively.
Commission have both condemned the present law as
unfair. Recommendations have been made for its
reform. The recommendations are presently being
considered by the Commonwealth and New South Wales
Parliaments respectively.
3. PEOPLE NOT DISPLACED BUT INDIRECTLY AFFECTED
3.1 The So-Called Tax Base Effect
The community may be disadvantaged in a number of
ways as a result of a highway facility. It may lose
open space. It may also lose part of its "tax
base". Its tax base is made up of rate payers. The
less houses there are, the less people pay rates.
The Council’s income may diminish, whereas the
services it is required to provide for its rate-payers
do not materially diminish.
ways as a result of a highway facility. It may lose
open space. It may also lose part of its "tax
base". Its tax base is made up of rate payers. The
less houses there are, the less people pay rates.
The Council’s income may diminish, whereas the
services it is required to provide for its rate-payers
do not materially diminish.
3.2 Loss of Open Space
In the chapter dealing with open space we consider
the concept of ‘compensatory open space'. The
concept suggests that where open space is taken by a
highway facility a corresponding amount of open space
should be provided as part of the cost of the road
works.
the concept of ‘compensatory open space'. The
concept suggests that where open space is taken by a
highway facility a corresponding amount of open space
should be provided as part of the cost of the road
works.
4. SEVERANCE
4.1 What is Severance?
A road may operate as a barrier to movement. If it
does, the communities on either side will be severed
from each other. The severance may be physical or it
may be 'psychological'. It will be physical when the
barrier is impassible or where it operates to inhibit
does, the communities on either side will be severed
from each other. The severance may be physical or it
may be 'psychological'. It will be physical when the
barrier is impassible or where it operates to inhibit
----------(vi)----------
trips. It will be psychological where people feel
cut-off.
cut-off.
It is proposed that the South Western Option should
be built to freeway standard between Undercliffe and
King Georges Road. Freeway standard demands that
there should be no access by pedestrians, and controlled
access by vehicles. Person-proof fencing is proposed
along the freeway section of the route. It will form
an impassible barrier. Insofar as there is any cohesion
between the communities on either side of the valley
(a matter which will be examined separately when
evaluating the South Western Option), the communities
will be severed from each other.
be built to freeway standard between Undercliffe and
King Georges Road. Freeway standard demands that
there should be no access by pedestrians, and controlled
access by vehicles. Person-proof fencing is proposed
along the freeway section of the route. It will form
an impassible barrier. Insofar as there is any cohesion
between the communities on either side of the valley
(a matter which will be examined separately when
evaluating the South Western Option), the communities
will be severed from each other.
Psychological severance may arise despite the
Provision of crossings (including bridges and under-
passes). People may still feel 'cut-off' from areas
with which they previously had easy contact.
Provision of crossings (including bridges and under-
passes). People may still feel 'cut-off' from areas
with which they previously had easy contact.
4.2 Types of Severance
It is convenient to distinguish two variations on the
same theme. First, there are communities or facilities
which are 'land-locked' by a highway facility. Secondly,
there are communities which are bisected by a highway
facility.
same theme. First, there are communities or facilities
which are 'land-locked' by a highway facility. Secondly,
there are communities which are bisected by a highway
facility.
Examples of each are examined.
4.3 Judging the Severity of Severance
In a large metropolitan area such as Sydney is it
appropriate to talk of communities? Is it the case,
on the other hand, that people have something to do with
their neighbours on either side, and perhaps one or two
people in the same street, but hardly join with the entire
local population on any occasion, or any issue?
appropriate to talk of communities? Is it the case,
on the other hand, that people have something to do with
their neighbours on either side, and perhaps one or two
people in the same street, but hardly join with the entire
local population on any occasion, or any issue?
----------(vii)----------
whilst there is no longer that degree of community
cohesion which was evident in village life in days
gone by, (and which may sti1l be evident in country
life today), it is nonetheless true that there are
pockets within a residential area which do have a
strong sense of community, and which will be severely
disrupted if bisected by a highway facility. There
have been manifestations of this cohesion in the many
submissions made to this Inquiry.
cohesion which was evident in village life in days
gone by, (and which may sti1l be evident in country
life today), it is nonetheless true that there are
pockets within a residential area which do have a
strong sense of community, and which will be severely
disrupted if bisected by a highway facility. There
have been manifestations of this cohesion in the many
submissions made to this Inquiry.
This is a matter which ought to have been investigated.
4.4 The Effects of Severance
Can dislocation from one’s neighbours affect one’s
health? Preventative medicine seeks to reinforce social
interaction with a particular community. Individuals
are able to seek solace and assistance from their
neighbours, and to respond to the needs of their
neighbours in the same way. Any disruption to social
interaction is likely to disrupt the 'support system’
upon which the community's health is, in part, dependant.
health? Preventative medicine seeks to reinforce social
interaction with a particular community. Individuals
are able to seek solace and assistance from their
neighbours, and to respond to the needs of their
neighbours in the same way. Any disruption to social
interaction is likely to disrupt the 'support system’
upon which the community's health is, in part, dependant.
4.5 The Effect will be Greatest Upon Pedestrians
Severance will be felt most keenly by pedestrians. Who
are the pedestrians? They are the young, the poor,
the handicapped, the carless and the elderly.
4.6 The Amelioration of Severance
In some cases the investigation may show that severance
effects induced by a highway are so severe as to warrant
the abandonment of that option even though it may
satisfy other criteria.
effects induced by a highway are so severe as to warrant
the abandonment of that option even though it may
satisfy other criteria.
More often than not the location of the route can be
pushed and pulled in this direction and that to better
satisfy the criteria, by causing less severance in one
location than it did in another.
pushed and pulled in this direction and that to better
satisfy the criteria, by causing less severance in one
location than it did in another.
----------(viii)----------
Road design has an important effect upon severance.
Roads depressed below ground level ('in-cut') are
less disruptive than roads at ground 1eve1 or roads
on structure. An engineering maxim pithily
encapsulates this notion:-
Roads depressed below ground level ('in-cut') are
less disruptive than roads at ground 1eve1 or roads
on structure. An engineering maxim pithily
encapsulates this notion:-
"Where highways are elevated,
communities are depressed; and
where highways are depressed,
communities are elevated."
communities are depressed; and
where highways are depressed,
communities are elevated."
There will be cases, inevitably, where there is
severance, where it cannot be avoided by choosing a
different alignment or design, and where an attempt
must be made to repair the division between the two
communities by a facility which links both sides.
severance, where it cannot be avoided by choosing a
different alignment or design, and where an attempt
must be made to repair the division between the two
communities by a facility which links both sides.
5. ACCIDENTS
5.1 The Cause of Motor Vehicle Accidents
Broadly, there are three variables which may be
involved in an accident. The road itself may be
responsible; the vehicle may be defective and may be
responsible, or the road user (whether pedestrian
or driver) may be responsible. All three may share
responsibility. The issue of safety can be tackled by
addressing any one of these factors.
5.2 The Vulnerability of Certain Persons to Road Accidents
Different classes of people are more vulnerable to
road accidents than others, and their vulnerability
increases in different situations.
road accidents than others, and their vulnerability
increases in different situations.
In the case of pedestrians, children and the elderly
are especially vulnerable. The vulnerability of
children will be increased where significant increases
in traffic are directed along roads where schools are
located. Where open space facilities are not provided
children will still indulge in recreation and more than
are especially vulnerable. The vulnerability of
children will be increased where significant increases
in traffic are directed along roads where schools are
located. Where open space facilities are not provided
children will still indulge in recreation and more than
----------(ix)----------
likely they will play on the roadway. We examine
this matter in the chapter dealing with open space.
The presence of children on the roadway makes them
vulnerable to accidents, and a significant proportion
occur in this way. That proportion can be reduced,
both by the provision of adequate open space, and
by a suitable road hierarchy eliminating through
traffic from residential streets.
this matter in the chapter dealing with open space.
The presence of children on the roadway makes them
vulnerable to accidents, and a significant proportion
occur in this way. That proportion can be reduced,
both by the provision of adequate open space, and
by a suitable road hierarchy eliminating through
traffic from residential streets.
5.3 The Effect of Freeways upon Motor Vehicle Accidents
The real issue is not whether freeways reduce
accident rates; it is fairly clear that they do, as
one would expect with a high quality and expensive
facility. The issue is whether the building of
freeways is the most cost-effective way of saving
lives and preventing injuries. The answer is provided
by Henderson in the following words:-
"..If our prime aim is to save
as many
lives as possible per safety dollar
available, and to the extent that
urban freeway money is safety money,
then much better returns in crash
loss reduction will be available
from spending this money on parts of
the travel system other than urban
freeways."
lives as possible per safety dollar
available, and to the extent that
urban freeway money is safety money,
then much better returns in crash
loss reduction will be available
from spending this money on parts of
the travel system other than urban
freeways."
In short, added safety may be a bonus that comes with
freeways. It could not be used as a justification for
them.
freeways. It could not be used as a justification for
them.
5.4 The Involvement of Trucks in Accidents
It is sometimes said that the motor vehicle is a
lethal weapon. Yet there is a degree of complacency
about cars which does not extend to trucks. People
rarely fear cars (though perhaps they ought). They
do fear trucks.
lethal weapon. Yet there is a degree of complacency
about cars which does not extend to trucks. People
rarely fear cars (though perhaps they ought). They
do fear trucks.
The public is not wrong in its perception that trucks
are to be feared. Trucks, and especially articulated
are to be feared. Trucks, and especially articulated
---------(x)-----------
vehicles, make a disproportionate contribution to
fatal accidents. The statistics emerge from the
Commission of Enquiry into the N.S.W. Road Freight
Industry. Articulated vehicles represent only 0.6%
of the vehicles registered in New South Wales. Yet
their involvement in accidents is as follows:-
fatal accidents. The statistics emerge from the
Commission of Enquiry into the N.S.W. Road Freight
Industry. Articulated vehicles represent only 0.6%
of the vehicles registered in New South Wales. Yet
their involvement in accidents is as follows:-
- 5.3% of vehicles involved in
fatal crashes
- 1.5% of vehicles involved in
injury crashes
- 1.4% of the vehicles involved
in tow-away crashes.
Perhaps it is unfair to take the raw numbers. The
Freight Enquiry demonstrates that the involvement of
articulated vehicles in fatal crashes is over double
that which might be expected having regard to their
numbers and the distance travelled.
Freight Enquiry demonstrates that the involvement of
articulated vehicles in fatal crashes is over double
that which might be expected having regard to their
numbers and the distance travelled.
E. ENVIRONMENTAL CRITERIA
1. WHAT IS THE ENVIRONMENT
1.1 Definition
The ‘environment’ is everything around us. It is
much more than parks and trees, although certainly
they are a precious part of it. It is the shopping
centres, the streets, the air we breathe, the
level of noise, the traffic and interaction with
one’s neighbours.
much more than parks and trees, although certainly
they are a precious part of it. It is the shopping
centres, the streets, the air we breathe, the
level of noise, the traffic and interaction with
one’s neighbours.
1.2 Changing Attitudes to the Environment
The opening words of the County of Cumberland
Planning Scheme Report in July, 1948 portrays a
different world: -
Planning Scheme Report in July, 1948 portrays a
different world: -
"This is a planning scheme for
a
vital and prosperous region, for
the second white-city of the British
Empire, for the other towns of the
region and the broad acres between
them.”
vital and prosperous region, for
the second white-city of the British
Empire, for the other towns of the
region and the broad acres between
them.”
The sun has now set upon the British Empire. It
would be considered unacceptable today, even racist,
to refer to Sydney as a ‘white-city'.
would be considered unacceptable today, even racist,
to refer to Sydney as a ‘white-city'.
The word 'environment’ had barely surfaced before
the 1960's. Suddenly it was on everyone's lips.
The politicians quickly followed with Departments
which were concerned with the environment.
Legislation came soon thereafter.
the 1960's. Suddenly it was on everyone's lips.
The politicians quickly followed with Departments
which were concerned with the environment.
Legislation came soon thereafter.
Nor is this a fad to be derided. Changes have taken
place which are hard to ignore. Sydney is surrounded
by a skirt of brown-smog. People begin to wonder
whether it may be having some insidious effect upon
their lungs and upon the health of their children.
place which are hard to ignore. Sydney is surrounded
by a skirt of brown-smog. People begin to wonder
whether it may be having some insidious effect upon
their lungs and upon the health of their children.
And there are small things besides. Their impact
upon the community's conscience is nonetheless
substantial. People were fond of certain trees which
upon the community's conscience is nonetheless
substantial. People were fond of certain trees which
----------(xii)----------
lined the beaches at Manly and Bondi. Gradually they
died. Their death was attributed to detergents
introduced by man into his environment. And then
there is the phenomenon with which we are all
familiar. People have taken to the streets boldly
proclaiming a certain joy in physical fitness.
Having taken that step it is difficult to ignore air
contaminated by fumes (where that is encountered) or
an environment bereft of trees and grass (where that
occurs).
died. Their death was attributed to detergents
introduced by man into his environment. And then
there is the phenomenon with which we are all
familiar. People have taken to the streets boldly
proclaiming a certain joy in physical fitness.
Having taken that step it is difficult to ignore air
contaminated by fumes (where that is encountered) or
an environment bereft of trees and grass (where that
occurs).
2. NOISE
2.7 Definition of Noise
Noise is somewhat glibly described as unwanted sound-
It is commonplace nowadays to hear the expression
'noise pollution’, emphasising that the sound is
unwanted and is perceived as ‘contaminating’ the
senses. It is defined by the Left Handed Dictionary
as 'audible grime’.
It is commonplace nowadays to hear the expression
'noise pollution’, emphasising that the sound is
unwanted and is perceived as ‘contaminating’ the
senses. It is defined by the Left Handed Dictionary
as 'audible grime’.
To state the definition is to immediately confront
the problem that noise is, by its nature, subjective-
A person whistling may create music to his own
ears and noise to the ears of someone nearby. Yet that
bystander may attend a rock-concert and be exposed to
sound levels which, to another’s ears, is deafening.
the problem that noise is, by its nature, subjective-
A person whistling may create music to his own
ears and noise to the ears of someone nearby. Yet that
bystander may attend a rock-concert and be exposed to
sound levels which, to another’s ears, is deafening.
The chapter considers the character and measurement
of noise"
of noise"
2.2 Traffic Noise
The level of noise generated by traffic is due
principally to the following:-
principally to the following:-
- the total traffic flow;
- the proportion of heavy vehicles;
- the vehicle operating environment
including the road surface.
-----------(xiii)---------
The focus in this Inquiry has been almost exclusively
upon traffic flow. Yet traffic flow is rather less
important in the context of noise as the following
paragraph from a NAASRA publication makes clear:-
upon traffic flow. Yet traffic flow is rather less
important in the context of noise as the following
paragraph from a NAASRA publication makes clear:-
"The graphs show that noise
levels do
not increase greatly when traffic
volumes exceed 1,000 vehicles per
hour.”
not increase greatly when traffic
volumes exceed 1,000 vehicles per
hour.”
Unless the numbers of vehicles (and especially the
number of trucks) using the roads change fairly
dramatically, the differences in noise are not likely
to be great, even though people using the area may have
the impression the problem is growing.
number of trucks) using the roads change fairly
dramatically, the differences in noise are not likely
to be great, even though people using the area may have
the impression the problem is growing.
2.3 The Effects of Noise
Almost every submission mentioned noise. The evidence
given in the public hearings emphasised the
objectionable nature of noise, and the need for steps
to be taken to remove or diminish it.
given in the public hearings emphasised the
objectionable nature of noise, and the need for steps
to be taken to remove or diminish it.
We examine the evidence concerning the physiological
and psychological effects of noise. No doubt, to certain
minds, the evidence of physiological or psychological
'damage' through noise falls short of scientific
proof. The Inquiry, for its part, endorses the
conclusion of two researchers, Ettema and Zielhuis,
1977, cited in the submission of the Health Commission:-
and psychological effects of noise. No doubt, to certain
minds, the evidence of physiological or psychological
'damage' through noise falls short of scientific
proof. The Inquiry, for its part, endorses the
conclusion of two researchers, Ettema and Zielhuis,
1977, cited in the submission of the Health Commission:-
"We need not wait until full
data is
available to join the noise abatement
movement. Noise is all around us
inducing many complaints and impair-
ment of well being, at least in its
psychological and social aspects."
available to join the noise abatement
movement. Noise is all around us
inducing many complaints and impair-
ment of well being, at least in its
psychological and social aspects."
The community's concern about noise is well founded.
Each option must be examined to judge the effect which
it has upon noise.
Each option must be examined to judge the effect which
it has upon noise.
----------(xiv)----------
2.4 Noise Prediction
We examined various noise prediction models including
the Burgess Model. Reservations were felt by this
Inquiry concerning noise modelling. The community’s
concern with the problem of noise can scarcely be
doubted. It was evident to the Urban transport Study
Group when it made its investigations. It was
evident to the Planning and Environment Commission
when it held public meetings and conducted surveys.
It was amply revealed by the submissions made to this
Inquiry.
the Burgess Model. Reservations were felt by this
Inquiry concerning noise modelling. The community’s
concern with the problem of noise can scarcely be
doubted. It was evident to the Urban transport Study
Group when it made its investigations. It was
evident to the Planning and Environment Commission
when it held public meetings and conducted surveys.
It was amply revealed by the submissions made to this
Inquiry.
To demonstrate that those charged with the
responsibility of assessing options share the community's
concern for noise, elaborate steps are taken to
construct intricate models to make predictions of noise.
That is not to say that those predictions, when made,
may not provide an insight into the noise which can be
expected if one were to select one option rather
than another. However, one may doubt the extent to
which one is really much better off than simply saying
that traffic is expected to increase by a certain
amount, of which a certain proportion will be heavy
vehicles, so that the noise environment will
deteriorate to a greater or lesser degree based upon
one's experience with traffic flows.
responsibility of assessing options share the community's
concern for noise, elaborate steps are taken to
construct intricate models to make predictions of noise.
That is not to say that those predictions, when made,
may not provide an insight into the noise which can be
expected if one were to select one option rather
than another. However, one may doubt the extent to
which one is really much better off than simply saying
that traffic is expected to increase by a certain
amount, of which a certain proportion will be heavy
vehicles, so that the noise environment will
deteriorate to a greater or lesser degree based upon
one's experience with traffic flows.
The matter is raised because there are other less
dramatic and less elaborate ways in which those
responsible for assessing or promoting options can
demonstrate their concern for the "noise problem".
They are sometimes overlooked because all energy is
channelled into the elaborate and time-consuming
process of noise prediction. The other ways of
demonstrating that concern are dealt with in the
following section.
dramatic and less elaborate ways in which those
responsible for assessing or promoting options can
demonstrate their concern for the "noise problem".
They are sometimes overlooked because all energy is
channelled into the elaborate and time-consuming
process of noise prediction. The other ways of
demonstrating that concern are dealt with in the
following section.
----------(xv)----------
2.5 The Ways of Combating Noise
It is possible to combat noise in a number of ways:-
- altering the traffic flow
design features of the road
- alterations to land use
- insulation of buildings adjacent
to the road
- the provision of barriers to
intercept noise
- attacking the noise at source by
providing for quieter vehicles.
Each is dealt with in turn. Manipulating land use
(in a way which induces less travel rather than
more) may be a rather more effective way of dealing
with noise than concentrating upon traffic flow.
(in a way which induces less travel rather than
more) may be a rather more effective way of dealing
with noise than concentrating upon traffic flow.
3. AIR POLLUTION
3.1 Definition of Air Pollution
In every day life we are conscious of the air we
breathe. We are conscious of odours, fumes, smoke
and dust. We are also conscious of invisible
substances suspended in the air we breathe which
makes ‘city air' very different from 'country air'.
As urban dwel1ers, we have all had the experience
of breathing country air deeply, and exclaiming
that in some mysterious way it was 'different' and
'better’.
breathe. We are conscious of odours, fumes, smoke
and dust. We are also conscious of invisible
substances suspended in the air we breathe which
makes ‘city air' very different from 'country air'.
As urban dwel1ers, we have all had the experience
of breathing country air deeply, and exclaiming
that in some mysterious way it was 'different' and
'better’.
Are we deluding ourselves? Is there such a thing
as "fresh air"? If we are not mistaken in perceiv-
ing a difference between 'city air' and ‘country
air’ or between ‘polluted air' and 'fresh air',
what is the explanation? To what extent do motor
vehicles contribute to that pollution? What measures
can be taken to minimise air pollution? Is the
construction of any one of the options consistent or
inconsistent with the stated objectives of "improving
air quality".
as "fresh air"? If we are not mistaken in perceiv-
ing a difference between 'city air' and ‘country
air’ or between ‘polluted air' and 'fresh air',
what is the explanation? To what extent do motor
vehicles contribute to that pollution? What measures
can be taken to minimise air pollution? Is the
construction of any one of the options consistent or
inconsistent with the stated objectives of "improving
----------(xvi)----------
air quality".
The chapter examines:-
- the nature of air pollution and
the difference between primary
and secondary pollutants
- the causes of air pollution and
the contribution made by motor
vehicles
3.2 Community Concern with Air Pollution
The Industrial Revolution brought about a great many
benefits. People were immediately conscious of those
benefits. They were also conscious of the dirt and
grime. Charles Dickens immortalized that consciousness
and the community's concern. It would be wrong,
therefore, to suggest that the community has only
recently begun to concern itself with air pollution.
What is recent, is the universality of that concern, and
the fact that it is now vocalised. Perhaps this is
simply a manifestation of the community's perception that
the problem is growing.
In December, 1977 the State Pollution Control Commission
commenced the operation of its pollution index. That
index has since been adopted by the media as part of
the standard presentation of weather information. The
media is simply reflecting the interest and concern of
the community with the quality of the air it breathes.
commenced the operation of its pollution index. That
index has since been adopted by the media as part of
the standard presentation of weather information. The
media is simply reflecting the interest and concern of
the community with the quality of the air it breathes.
We consider whether the community is mistaken. Is there
evidence that pollution does effect the health of
persons subjected to it?
evidence that pollution does effect the health of
persons subjected to it?
3.3 The Effects of Air Pollution
It is necessary to distinguish between different
pollutants. They each have different effects and their
effects in combination (as in the case of photochemical
----------(xvii)----------
smog) can be different from their effects in
isolation.
isolation.
We have all witnessed the forlorn spectacle of small
green shrubs willing by the side of the road or on
the median strip, defying the valiant efforts of
Council gardeners. By this and other means the
community has been alerted to the insidious effects
these gases may be having. The evidence is examined.
green shrubs willing by the side of the road or on
the median strip, defying the valiant efforts of
Council gardeners. By this and other means the
community has been alerted to the insidious effects
these gases may be having. The evidence is examined.
3.4 The Effects of Photochemical Smog
Professor A.J. Haagen-Smit published in 1952 a
classic paper on the formation of the notorious Los
Angeles photochemical smog. Some twenty years later
in another journal he wrote about the way in which he
made the discovery:-
classic paper on the formation of the notorious Los
Angeles photochemical smog. Some twenty years later
in another journal he wrote about the way in which he
made the discovery:-
"I had just finished isolating
and
identifying the odours of the pineapple
when I opened the window and smelled
what we now call 'smog’. I passed the
smoggy air through the cold traps that
had served me faithfully in collecting
the vapours of the fruits. Three hundred
cubic feet of air (equal to the amount of
air we breathe everyday) went through the
traps, resulting in a glass filled with
an evil-smelling water! That dirty glass
of water made a deep impression on me.
It was water that anyone would refuse to
drink. Yet we inhale it, and the lungs
are efficient in assimilating impurity.
This glass of water should have found
a place in the Smithsonian as a warning
to everyone to be careful about what
you breathe."
identifying the odours of the pineapple
when I opened the window and smelled
what we now call 'smog’. I passed the
smoggy air through the cold traps that
had served me faithfully in collecting
the vapours of the fruits. Three hundred
cubic feet of air (equal to the amount of
air we breathe everyday) went through the
traps, resulting in a glass filled with
an evil-smelling water! That dirty glass
of water made a deep impression on me.
It was water that anyone would refuse to
drink. Yet we inhale it, and the lungs
are efficient in assimilating impurity.
This glass of water should have found
a place in the Smithsonian as a warning
to everyone to be careful about what
you breathe."
Sydney has been likened to Los Angeles in both its
sunny climate and its geography. Los Angeles has been
given the undistinguished title of 'Smog Capital of
the world'. One must lament, as does the state pollution
Control Commission, that Sydney is not far behind:-
----------(xviii)----------
"Sydney’s experience with
photochemical
pollution parallels, in many respects,
experiences in Los Angeles and Tokyo.
Peak concentrations in Sydney and Tokyo
are not as high, and high concentrations
there do not occur as frequently as in
Los Angeles during the worst period in
the ‘60s and the early '70s. Nonetheless,
all three cities record ozone levels that
are higher than elsewhere in the world."
pollution parallels, in many respects,
experiences in Los Angeles and Tokyo.
Peak concentrations in Sydney and Tokyo
are not as high, and high concentrations
there do not occur as frequently as in
Los Angeles during the worst period in
the ‘60s and the early '70s. Nonetheless,
all three cities record ozone levels that
are higher than elsewhere in the world."
That bitter pill is not sweetened when one learns that
concentrations in Los Angeles and Tokyo are being
reduced because of stringent emission controls,
whereas the trend in Sydney is still "upwards".
Four questions are then addressed:-
concentrations in Los Angeles and Tokyo are being
reduced because of stringent emission controls,
whereas the trend in Sydney is still "upwards".
Four questions are then addressed:-
- First, what are the effects of exposure
to various levels of photochemical smog?
- Secondly, having regard to those effects,
what standards should be set for Sydney?
- Thirdly, how often, at present, does
Sydney fail to meet that standard? How
bad is the photochemical- smog problem in
Sydney?
- Fourthly, what can be done to achieve
an acceptable standard?
3.5 The Effects of Smog Upon Health
A book entitled 'The Quick and the Dead - A Biomedical
Atlas of Sydney' was tendered by one witness. The
book was prepared from data gathered from the Medecheck
Referral Centre between 1971 and 1975.
Atlas of Sydney' was tendered by one witness. The
book was prepared from data gathered from the Medecheck
Referral Centre between 1971 and 1975.
Now, the mere co-incidence of two phenomena within the
one geographical area does not prove that one is caused
by the other. To prove that there are high concentrations
of pollution, for instance, within a particular area,
and that persons within that area have a high incidence of
respiratory disease or dysfunction, is not to prove that
one geographical area does not prove that one is caused
by the other. To prove that there are high concentrations
of pollution, for instance, within a particular area,
and that persons within that area have a high incidence of
respiratory disease or dysfunction, is not to prove that
-----------(xix)---------
the pollution causes the respiratory ailment. In
the nature of things it is difficult to exclude other
possibilities. A person who lives in one area more
than likely works within another. Who is to say that
the other area does not play some part causally, or
that some other factor altogether is the explanation
for the diagnosis.
the nature of things it is difficult to exclude other
possibilities. A person who lives in one area more
than likely works within another. Who is to say that
the other area does not play some part causally, or
that some other factor altogether is the explanation
for the diagnosis.
Yet, having made that concession, there are some
striking correlations. The authors offer the following
conclusions: -
striking correlations. The authors offer the following
conclusions: -
"In summary, the maps of this
chapter
clearly illustrate that as far as the
respiratory health of the population
is concerned, the South and the near
West of the Sydney basin provide cause
for deep concern.”
clearly illustrate that as far as the
respiratory health of the population
is concerned, the South and the near
West of the Sydney basin provide cause
for deep concern.”
This Inquiry echoes that concern. Proof of a causal
connection between air pollution and compromised
lung function may never be forthcoming. The number of
possible explanations for the geographical coincidence
of these two phenomena may be endless. Whatever view
is taken, prudence demands that the problem of
photochemical smog should be addressed, and addressed
at once. The population ought not be subjected to the
spectacle of a debate of the type raised in the 1950's
concerning the connection between smoking and ill-
health. Proof of that connection beyond reasonable
doubt took considerable scientific ingenuity. It also
took a great deal of time. The population in the mean-
time was effectively deprived of the process of
re-education. And whilst the matter was being debated,
those who did smoke, if asked, had little doubt in their
own minds that their coughing and spluttering was in
some way connected with their smoking habit.
connection between air pollution and compromised
lung function may never be forthcoming. The number of
possible explanations for the geographical coincidence
of these two phenomena may be endless. Whatever view
is taken, prudence demands that the problem of
photochemical smog should be addressed, and addressed
at once. The population ought not be subjected to the
spectacle of a debate of the type raised in the 1950's
concerning the connection between smoking and ill-
health. Proof of that connection beyond reasonable
doubt took considerable scientific ingenuity. It also
took a great deal of time. The population in the mean-
time was effectively deprived of the process of
re-education. And whilst the matter was being debated,
those who did smoke, if asked, had little doubt in their
own minds that their coughing and spluttering was in
some way connected with their smoking habit.
It is evident from the many submissions made to this
Inquiry that people have come to feel the same way
Inquiry that people have come to feel the same way
----------(xx)----------
about air pollution. Their conclusion is like1y
to be derided by scientists. It falls far short of
the rigours of scientific method. In time, as with
smoking, their perception may nonetheless be validated'
Caution demands that steps be taken in the meantime
to reduce levels of air pollution.
to be derided by scientists. It falls far short of
the rigours of scientific method. In time, as with
smoking, their perception may nonetheless be validated'
Caution demands that steps be taken in the meantime
to reduce levels of air pollution.
3.6 What is an Appropriate Standard for Photochemical Smog
Certain authors have suggested a standard of 20 pphm
as an appropriate standard for Sydney. At that level,
certain asthmatics and others whose respiratory system
is in some way compromised, may experience breathing
difficulties and other symptoms. It is inappropriate,
so they say, to set a level at which no-one is at
risk. Certainly risks are a part of everyday living.
The risk which must be accepted, surely, is the risk
that exposure to even small quantities of
photochemical smog (less than 12 pphm) will damage
one’s health. To condemn, as an act of policy, an
appreciable section of the community (asthmatics and
others whose lung function is compromised) to discomfort
is unacceptable. Certainly one must be practical and
certainly this is a question of priorities. However,
the view taken by this Inquiry is that nothing less
than the standard adopted by National Health and
Medical Research Council (12 pphm) will do.
as an appropriate standard for Sydney. At that level,
certain asthmatics and others whose respiratory system
is in some way compromised, may experience breathing
difficulties and other symptoms. It is inappropriate,
so they say, to set a level at which no-one is at
risk. Certainly risks are a part of everyday living.
The risk which must be accepted, surely, is the risk
that exposure to even small quantities of
photochemical smog (less than 12 pphm) will damage
one’s health. To condemn, as an act of policy, an
appreciable section of the community (asthmatics and
others whose lung function is compromised) to discomfort
is unacceptable. Certainly one must be practical and
certainly this is a question of priorities. However,
the view taken by this Inquiry is that nothing less
than the standard adopted by National Health and
Medical Research Council (12 pphm) will do.
3.7 Predicting Concentration of Air Pollutants
Elaborate models are constructed to predict levels of
air pollution. The road builders and the planners
each know that the community is concerned with air
pollution. They feel, rightly, a need to demonstrate
the same concern. They discharge that obligation, in
their own eyes, by using the modelling procedure. They
focus minute attention upon particular concentrations
of particular pollutants along particular roads when
this is but one aspect of but one option which may be
air pollution. The road builders and the planners
each know that the community is concerned with air
pollution. They feel, rightly, a need to demonstrate
the same concern. They discharge that obligation, in
their own eyes, by using the modelling procedure. They
focus minute attention upon particular concentrations
of particular pollutants along particular roads when
this is but one aspect of but one option which may be
----------(xxi)----------
available. There is the risk that other avenues, rather
more pedestrian, are left unexplored.
more pedestrian, are left unexplored.
3.8 The Ways of Combating Air Pollution
If the exclusive focus is upon the pollution engendered
by introducing one or other of a number of different
options, the impression may be created that the
objective of "improving air quality" is served by
choosing the option which causes the least air
pollution, or confines pollution to areas where it
matters 1ess. That conclusion may be wrong.
by introducing one or other of a number of different
options, the impression may be created that the
objective of "improving air quality" is served by
choosing the option which causes the least air
pollution, or confines pollution to areas where it
matters 1ess. That conclusion may be wrong.
Whilst it is important to know the effects on air
quality of a particular option, the impression should
not be given, as was done to some extent in this
Inquiry, that building one of the options or not
building at all, are the only two courses open if one
is dedicated to the objective of ‘improving air quality’.
There are other options and they may be better.
Certainly they should be assessed. In broad terms
the means available to combat air pollution are:-
quality of a particular option, the impression should
not be given, as was done to some extent in this
Inquiry, that building one of the options or not
building at all, are the only two courses open if one
is dedicated to the objective of ‘improving air quality’.
There are other options and they may be better.
Certainly they should be assessed. In broad terms
the means available to combat air pollution are:-
- discouraging the use of motor vehicles
- altering traffic flows
- introducing a road hierarchy
- manipulating land use
- introducing design features into the
road which inhibit the spread of
pollutants
- erecting barriers (or utilising barriers
erected for other purposes such as noise)
to intercept pollutants
- encouraging high occupancy vehicles
- encouraging the use of other transport
modes
- encouraging the use of fuels which pollute
the atmosphere less (such as LPG gas)
- proceeding towards lead-free petrol
- introducing catalytic convertors
- various other emission control devices to
control pollution at source.
----------(xxii)----------
These matters are considered in turn.
Emission control would be made rather more simple
if catalytic convertors could be employed in
Australia. The technology cannot be employed whilst
lead is used in petrol. The Inquiry applauds the
announcement by the New South Wales Government in
July, 1980 that it will require 92 octane lead-free
petrol to be available in New South Wales from 1st
July, 1984. The way will then be open to introduce
this important emission control device. The
importance of the device can be appreciated from the
following:-
if catalytic convertors could be employed in
Australia. The technology cannot be employed whilst
lead is used in petrol. The Inquiry applauds the
announcement by the New South Wales Government in
July, 1980 that it will require 92 octane lead-free
petrol to be available in New South Wales from 1st
July, 1984. The way will then be open to introduce
this important emission control device. The
importance of the device can be appreciated from the
following:-
"Catalytic convertors and
lead-free
petrol have been the basis of U.S.,
Canadian and Japanese efforts to control
car exhaust pollution in recent years."
petrol have been the basis of U.S.,
Canadian and Japanese efforts to control
car exhaust pollution in recent years."
It is intolerable that the people of this metropolis
should have to suffer serious pollution when the
technology to deal with the problem is available and
is widely employed overseas.
should have to suffer serious pollution when the
technology to deal with the problem is available and
is widely employed overseas.
4. EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE TO LEAD POLLUTION
4.1 Lead is a Poison
Lead is a Poison. It is a poison which accumulates
in the body when ingested. It has no useful biological
function.
At one time it was widely used in the manufacture of
household utensils, children's toys, water-pipes and
paint. Because of its toxic characteristics, and its
tendency to accumulate in the body, its use has been
substantially discontinued. The one important
exception is petrol.
household utensils, children's toys, water-pipes and
paint. Because of its toxic characteristics, and its
tendency to accumulate in the body, its use has been
substantially discontinued. The one important
exception is petrol.
Lead poisoning can lead to permanent brain damage
(encephalopathy), chronic kidney disease and even
----------(xxiii)----------
death. Children are more susceptible to the effects
of lead than adults, due to their rapidly developing
physiological and neurological functions.
of lead than adults, due to their rapidly developing
physiological and neurological functions.
4.2 The Effects of Low Concentrations of Lead
We address the following issues: -
- First, to what extent is exposure
to low concentrations of lead (from
whatever source) harmful or undesirable?
- Secondly, to what extent can accumulations
of lead detected in the body be
attributed to the lead expelled from car
exhausts?
- Thirdly, to what extent is lead in air
harmful to health?
There seems to be little doubt that lead exposure can
be harmful to health even whilst falling short of
clinical lead poisoning. The quibble seems rather
to be the level at which neurological and
psychological impairment may arise.
be harmful to health even whilst falling short of
clinical lead poisoning. The quibble seems rather
to be the level at which neurological and
psychological impairment may arise.
4.3 The Effects Upon Health of Lead in the Air
The chapter briefly reviews some of the more recent
evidence including the investigation by Garnys,
Freeman and Smythe (1979) “Lead Burden of Sydney
School Children".
evidence including the investigation by Garnys,
Freeman and Smythe (1979) “Lead Burden of Sydney
School Children".
The methodology and the conclusions of Garnys,
Freeman and Smythe have been criticised. It is
suggested that attention should be directed instead
to other sources of lead such as food and water.
Freeman and Smythe have been criticised. It is
suggested that attention should be directed instead
to other sources of lead such as food and water.
Two things must be said about that suggestion.
First, insofar as absorption of lead is a problem,
First, insofar as absorption of lead is a problem,
----------(xxiv)----------
as it seems to this Inquiry it is, lead in air can
be more immediately and completely controlled.
Secondly, having regard to the susceptibility of
young children, and the possible consequences if nothing
is done, the community and Parliament are entitled to
act on something less than strict scientific proof,
and something which may approximate (to borrow a legal
phrase) 'proof on the balance of probabilities'. A
strong prima facie connection does exist between lead
in air and the impairment of health.
be more immediately and completely controlled.
Secondly, having regard to the susceptibility of
young children, and the possible consequences if nothing
is done, the community and Parliament are entitled to
act on something less than strict scientific proof,
and something which may approximate (to borrow a legal
phrase) 'proof on the balance of probabilities'. A
strong prima facie connection does exist between lead
in air and the impairment of health.
4.4 Alternative Proposals to Deal with Lead Pollution
We consider a number of alternatives to the
lead from petrol including:-
lead from petrol including:-
- the introduction of lead filters
- inducing people to use lower
grade petrol
It is plain that the introduction of lead filters
cannot be viewed as a substitute for a policy directed
towards the removal of lead itself from petrol.
cannot be viewed as a substitute for a policy directed
towards the removal of lead itself from petrol.
Inducing more people to use regular petrol, though
with a higher octane rating, seems to this Inquiry
frought with danger. Consumer inertia will almost
certainly rob such a campaign of success. A policy
directed at the reduction of lead emissions through
the reduction of lead content seems to this Inquiry more
soundly based.
with a higher octane rating, seems to this Inquiry
frought with danger. Consumer inertia will almost
certainly rob such a campaign of success. A policy
directed at the reduction of lead emissions through
the reduction of lead content seems to this Inquiry more
soundly based.
4.5 The Use of Catalytic Convertors
Perhaps the greatest mischief perpetrated by lead
additives in petrol, is the fact that they deny the
community the use of catalytic convertors.
Perhaps the greatest mischief perpetrated by lead
additives in petrol, is the fact that they deny the
community the use of catalytic convertors.
Catalytic convertors are an emission device widely
used in the United States of America, Canada and
used in the United States of America, Canada and
----------(xxvi)----------
Japan. They reduced emissions from vehicles by
80%. The catalyst in these devices, however is
‘poisoned’ by even the smallest trace of lead in
the exhaust gases. Vehicles fitted with
catalytic converters must be fuelled by lead-free
motor spirits.
80%. The catalyst in these devices, however is
‘poisoned’ by even the smallest trace of lead in
the exhaust gases. Vehicles fitted with
catalytic converters must be fuelled by lead-free
motor spirits.
The State Pollution Control Commission in its
excellent pamphlet Lead in Petrol suggests that the
elimination of lead in petrol offers three solutions
in one. First, it will eliminate the health risks
which accompany lead in air. Secondly, it will pave
the way for the introduction of technology which
is already available and proven overseas, namely
catalytic converters, and they, in turn, will deal
with the other primary pollutants and the photo-
chemical smog which develops from their uncontrolled
emission.
excellent pamphlet Lead in Petrol suggests that the
elimination of lead in petrol offers three solutions
in one. First, it will eliminate the health risks
which accompany lead in air. Secondly, it will pave
the way for the introduction of technology which
is already available and proven overseas, namely
catalytic converters, and they, in turn, will deal
with the other primary pollutants and the photo-
chemical smog which develops from their uncontrolled
emission.
Thirdly, the catalytic converters themselves are
fuel efficient and will conserve fuel supplies.
Whilst this claim is disputed in some quarters, the
attractiveness of this technology in dealing with
the total pollution problem makes the continued
presence of lead in petrol the more unacceptable.
fuel efficient and will conserve fuel supplies.
Whilst this claim is disputed in some quarters, the
attractiveness of this technology in dealing with
the total pollution problem makes the continued
presence of lead in petrol the more unacceptable.
5. VIBRATION
5.1 Definition
‘Vibration’ is an every-day English word signifying
the rapid to-and-fro movement of the ground or a
structure. As a technical phenomenon, however, it
is imperfectly understood. Such explanations as
are available, are exceedingly complex.
the rapid to-and-fro movement of the ground or a
structure. As a technical phenomenon, however, it
is imperfectly understood. Such explanations as
are available, are exceedingly complex.
The Leitch Committee in its Report suggests that
vibrations cannot be regarded as a major consideration
----------(xxvi)----------
in the majority of inter-urban roads. We agree.
The roads under contemplation by this Inquiry are
all (technically) high quality roads. The quality
of the roads has a good deal to do with the generation
of vibrations.
The roads under contemplation by this Inquiry are
all (technically) high quality roads. The quality
of the roads has a good deal to do with the generation
of vibrations.
That is not to say, however, that the phenomenon
can be ignored. The extreme sensitivity of human
beings to vibrations demands that the problem should
be addressed where vibrations are likely to be
generated.
can be ignored. The extreme sensitivity of human
beings to vibrations demands that the problem should
be addressed where vibrations are likely to be
generated.
5.2 Classification of Vibrations
The chapter considers:-
- ground-borne vibrations
- air-borne vibrations
Heavy vehicles have an important bearing upon
vibrations. They generate higher ground-borne
vibrations. They are 'by and large' powered by diesel
engines which give rise to a much higher proportion of
low sound frequencies, and, therefore, a much higher
proportion of air-borne vibrations.
vibrations. They generate higher ground-borne
vibrations. They are 'by and large' powered by diesel
engines which give rise to a much higher proportion of
low sound frequencies, and, therefore, a much higher
proportion of air-borne vibrations.
5.3 Vibrations Experienced through Container Operations
at Balmain
at Balmain
It is interesting to examine the experience of Balmain
residents when container trucks used fairly narrow
roads as a means of access to and egress from the Mort
Dock container terminal. Residents of Mort Street,
Rowntree Street, Ballast Point Road and Mullen Street,
Balmain, complained of vibrations. The Balmain -
Rozelle Action Group retained consultants, Louis A.
Challis and Associates Pty. Limited, to make
measurements. The consultants concluded as follows:-
residents when container trucks used fairly narrow
roads as a means of access to and egress from the Mort
Dock container terminal. Residents of Mort Street,
Rowntree Street, Ballast Point Road and Mullen Street,
Balmain, complained of vibrations. The Balmain -
Rozelle Action Group retained consultants, Louis A.
Challis and Associates Pty. Limited, to make
measurements. The consultants concluded as follows:-
---------(xxvii)-----------
“The current complaints of building
damage due to container truck movement
in the residential area of Balmain
could not be substantiated by the
results measured during our inspection.
It is also unlikely that actual building
vibration, as measured, would result in
significant annoyance to residents in
the area."
damage due to container truck movement
in the residential area of Balmain
could not be substantiated by the
results measured during our inspection.
It is also unlikely that actual building
vibration, as measured, would result in
significant annoyance to residents in
the area."
Essentially the measurements taken were of ground-borne
vibrations. By and large they were fairly low though
in some cases they reached 0.2mm per second whilst
trucks were passing. The effect of air-borne
vibrations is not stated and may account for the
complaints of residents.
vibrations. By and large they were fairly low though
in some cases they reached 0.2mm per second whilst
trucks were passing. The effect of air-borne
vibrations is not stated and may account for the
complaints of residents.
The conclusion drawn by the consultants demonstrates,
to some extent, the artificiality of superimposing
an objective standard as to what may or may not cause
"significant annoyance to residents". The passage of
container trucks through narrow streets, past
dwellings which were fibro-clad and insubstantial in
many cases, excited a reaction of fear and annoyance.
The fear was generated by the very size of the
vehicles in relation to the width of the streets, and
by the danger of serious accident. Their passage was
accompanied by noise, by smoke from the exhaust, and by
vibrations. Compared to vibrations experienced
elsewhere in another setting, they may not have been
great. By a standard which might apply in that other
setting, therefore, they may not have caused
"significant annoyance". But they did not occur in that
other setting, and they were accompanied by noise,
pollution, fear and irritation. It is understandable,
therefore, in these circumstances that vibrations, even
of a low order, may be objectionable.
to some extent, the artificiality of superimposing
an objective standard as to what may or may not cause
"significant annoyance to residents". The passage of
container trucks through narrow streets, past
dwellings which were fibro-clad and insubstantial in
many cases, excited a reaction of fear and annoyance.
The fear was generated by the very size of the
vehicles in relation to the width of the streets, and
by the danger of serious accident. Their passage was
accompanied by noise, by smoke from the exhaust, and by
vibrations. Compared to vibrations experienced
elsewhere in another setting, they may not have been
great. By a standard which might apply in that other
setting, therefore, they may not have caused
"significant annoyance". But they did not occur in that
other setting, and they were accompanied by noise,
pollution, fear and irritation. It is understandable,
therefore, in these circumstances that vibrations, even
of a low order, may be objectionable.
6. ECOLOGICAL CRITERIA
6.1 What is Ecology
Ecology is the study of the way in which organisms
relate to each other and to their environment. It
has become a fashionable word. If, by that fashion,
people are made more aware of the delicate balance
relate to each other and to their environment. It
has become a fashionable word. If, by that fashion,
people are made more aware of the delicate balance
----------(xxviii)----------
established in nature, and are made more aware of
the dependence of animals and birds and other forms
of life upon the continuance of that balance, then
the fashion is not to be sneered at; it is to be
encouraged.
the dependence of animals and birds and other forms
of life upon the continuance of that balance, then
the fashion is not to be sneered at; it is to be
encouraged.
Much more is at stake than a few animals and birds,
precious though they may be. To upset the balance, by
altering the natural landscape, has consequences far
more dramatic and irreversible.
In most urban areas the damage has already been done.
Natural landscapes have been transformed and nature'S
balance destroyed. A road superimposed upon that
landscape is as offensive or inoffensive as any other
form of development. It may have environmental
consequences. It is unlikely to have ecological
consequences.
Natural landscapes have been transformed and nature'S
balance destroyed. A road superimposed upon that
landscape is as offensive or inoffensive as any other
form of development. It may have environmental
consequences. It is unlikely to have ecological
consequences.
The same cannot be said when the road makers plan to
push the road through open space, and especially
through an undeveloped valley. The road will
transform the landscape to a greater or lesser degree.
It is likely that ecological consequences will attend
that transformation.
push the road through open space, and especially
through an undeveloped valley. The road will
transform the landscape to a greater or lesser degree.
It is likely that ecological consequences will attend
that transformation.
6.2 The Hydrological Cycle
To appreciate what is at stake it is necessary to
explore nature's balance. The balance is maintained
by the 'hydrological cycle'. We examine that cycle
in the course of this chapter.
6.3 The Concept of Land Capability
We also examine the concept of land capability. The
concept strives to harmonise development with the
natural landscape and, in the process, minimise the
ecological damage which development would otherwise
inflict.
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7. VISUAL INTRUSION
7.1 The Subjective Nature of Beauty
The Joint Study Report suggested certain
environmental objectives. They included:-
environmental objectives. They included:-
- "minimise intrusion into the
visual environment
- enhance the visual environment"
A number of criteria were suggested including:-
- the length of new construction
passing through areas which are
visually highly attractive
- the number of houses with views
extended or obscured
The objectives and the criteria essentially
camouflage the question which must be asked and
answered: will the superimposition of a road
enhance or degrade the visual environment? That
is the threshold question.
camouflage the question which must be asked and
answered: will the superimposition of a road
enhance or degrade the visual environment? That
is the threshold question.
The answer to that question is not provided by
knowing the length of new construction passing
through areas which are visually highly attractive,
or the number of houses with views extended or
obscured, or in knowing any of the statistics
which one is enjoined to take into account. These
statistics are only relevant once the essential
question has been confronted. Nor is it to the
point to say that the answer to the threshold
question will depend upon the nature of the
landscape and the adjacent land use and the other
variables to which reference will be made shortly.
That simply means that the question must be posed
more than once. Having regard to the particular
land use at a particular point, does the super-
knowing the length of new construction passing
through areas which are visually highly attractive,
or the number of houses with views extended or
obscured, or in knowing any of the statistics
which one is enjoined to take into account. These
statistics are only relevant once the essential
question has been confronted. Nor is it to the
point to say that the answer to the threshold
question will depend upon the nature of the
landscape and the adjacent land use and the other
variables to which reference will be made shortly.
That simply means that the question must be posed
more than once. Having regard to the particular
land use at a particular point, does the super-
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imposition of a road enhance or detract from the
visual environment at that point? It will be
necessary to repeat the same evaluation at every
relevant turn.
visual environment at that point? It will be
necessary to repeat the same evaluation at every
relevant turn.
It is trite to say that an assessment of visual
intrusion is essentially subjective. It very much
depends upon the view one takes about the place and
'beauty' of a road in the urban environment. It is
a matter in which (to borrow a cliche) beauty is
very much in the eye of the beholder. one need only
contrast the following passages to appreciate the
different views held by their respective authors.
Mr. Carlton C. Robinson is a Traffic Engineer from
Oregon. In the Traffic Quarterly in July, 1963 he
concluded his exposition on freeways with the
following: -
intrusion is essentially subjective. It very much
depends upon the view one takes about the place and
'beauty' of a road in the urban environment. It is
a matter in which (to borrow a cliche) beauty is
very much in the eye of the beholder. one need only
contrast the following passages to appreciate the
different views held by their respective authors.
Mr. Carlton C. Robinson is a Traffic Engineer from
Oregon. In the Traffic Quarterly in July, 1963 he
concluded his exposition on freeways with the
following: -
"(Freeways) can add beauty as well
as
utility, a sense of orientation and order
as well as improved mobility, a respite
of green grass and trees as well as the
grace and strength of formed concrete.”
utility, a sense of orientation and order
as well as improved mobility, a respite
of green grass and trees as well as the
grace and strength of formed concrete.”
A fierce opponent of the English equivalent of
freeways (motorways) is a Mr. John Tyme. In his
book "Motorways versus Democracy" he says:-
freeways (motorways) is a Mr. John Tyme. In his
book "Motorways versus Democracy" he says:-
"It is my belief, and one shared by an
increasing number of people, that the
motorway/trunk road programme with all
its ramifications poses a consumate
evil, and constitules the greatest threat
to the interests of this nation in all
its history. None of our nation enemies
have so mutilated our cities, undermined
the long-term economic movement of
peopfe and goods, destroyed our industrial
base, diminished our ability to plan our
community life, and reduced our capacity
to feed ourselves."
It is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that Mr.
Tyme finds neither grace nor strength in formed
concrete.
Tyme finds neither grace nor strength in formed
concrete.
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7.2 Will a Road Enhance or Degrade the Visual Environment?
The many submissions made to this Inquiry remove all
doubt that the community places a high value upon
the Wolli Creek Valley and the Cooks River Valley.
They are the more valuable because of the relative
poverty of the surrounding areas in open space.
doubt that the community places a high value upon
the Wolli Creek Valley and the Cooks River Valley.
They are the more valuable because of the relative
poverty of the surrounding areas in open space.
In some areas (particularly the Cooks River Valley
in its upper reaches) although the river and its
surrounds have been allowed to degenerate, they are
recognised by the community as offering enormous
potential for passive or active recreation. In the
Wolli Creek Valley in the section between Undercliffe
and Bexley Road, the valley offers the last remnant
of natural vegetation in the entire river system.
From these submissions, from the eloquence of those
who appeared before the Inquiry, and from its own
inspections, the Inquiry concludes that each of the
river systems (the Cooks River Valley system and
the Wolli Creek) is a community resource of high
quality or enormous potential, and each is valued
as such by the community.
in its upper reaches) although the river and its
surrounds have been allowed to degenerate, they are
recognised by the community as offering enormous
potential for passive or active recreation. In the
Wolli Creek Valley in the section between Undercliffe
and Bexley Road, the valley offers the last remnant
of natural vegetation in the entire river system.
From these submissions, from the eloquence of those
who appeared before the Inquiry, and from its own
inspections, the Inquiry concludes that each of the
river systems (the Cooks River Valley system and
the Wolli Creek) is a community resource of high
quality or enormous potential, and each is valued
as such by the community.
The introduction of a road will destroy many
features of the Wolli Creek Valley. What remains
of the valley will be degraded by the presence of a
road. The destruction, moreover, will be of a
‘non-renewable resource’ in the area between
Undercliffe and Bexley Road.
features of the Wolli Creek Valley. What remains
of the valley will be degraded by the presence of a
road. The destruction, moreover, will be of a
‘non-renewable resource’ in the area between
Undercliffe and Bexley Road.
In the Cooks River Valley, the superimposition of a
road will degrade the valley visually in that it will
detract from the natural character of the valley.
road will degrade the valley visually in that it will
detract from the natural character of the valley.
Having made the basic subjective judgement, it is
now appropriate to examine in some greater depth the
extent of visual intrusion brought about by each
option.
now appropriate to examine in some greater depth the
extent of visual intrusion brought about by each
option.
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7.3 The Nature Of the Transformation of the Area
The chapter then considers the relevant variables
in assessing visual intrusion and the techniques
available to assist in that assessment.
in assessing visual intrusion and the techniques
available to assist in that assessment.
8. OPEN SPACE
8.1 The Major Options
Two of the major options being considered by this
Inquiry seriously intrude upon community open
space. They do so, moreover, in an area which is
seriously undernourished in open space. In the
evaluation of each option it will be important to
balance this loss against any transport advantages
said to arise.
Inquiry seriously intrude upon community open
space. They do so, moreover, in an area which is
seriously undernourished in open space. In the
evaluation of each option it will be important to
balance this loss against any transport advantages
said to arise.
8.2 The Role of Open Space
Open space has a number of distinct functions. At
any one time, for any one individual, it will
fulfil a number of these functions. They include:-
any one time, for any one individual, it will
fulfil a number of these functions. They include:-
- a recreational role
- an educational role
Open space provides an opportunity for solitude,
for self-exploration, for interaction with others,
and for interaction with nature, according to one's
taste or mood.
for self-exploration, for interaction with others,
and for interaction with nature, according to one's
taste or mood.
For children there are obvious advantages. The
stimulus to a child's senses and imagination,
through exposure to something other than drab
concrete and bitumen, can foster an interest in,
and concern for, the environment which will serve
the community well as those children pass into
adulthood.
stimulus to a child's senses and imagination,
through exposure to something other than drab
concrete and bitumen, can foster an interest in,
and concern for, the environment which will serve
the community well as those children pass into
adulthood.
8.3 Open Space gives Identity to a Local Area
The submissions created the strong impression that
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the suburbs which frank the Cooks River Valley, and
the Wolli Creek Valley, very much identify with
those areas. A moment’s reflection makes it
obvious that this should be so. In the nature of
things, there is a certain monotony about suburbia
wherever it occurs. Perhaps the monotony is the
greater in Sydney (at least on the southern side of
the Harbour) because a substantial proportion of the
development took place at approximately the same time.
The green spaces, and more especially those which are
largely in their natural state, become the refuge of
the imagination. Children spend their childhood
exploring them. They accumulate memories concerning
their peculiar features. Inexorably they become part
of those children, and their identity.
the Wolli Creek Valley, very much identify with
those areas. A moment’s reflection makes it
obvious that this should be so. In the nature of
things, there is a certain monotony about suburbia
wherever it occurs. Perhaps the monotony is the
greater in Sydney (at least on the southern side of
the Harbour) because a substantial proportion of the
development took place at approximately the same time.
The green spaces, and more especially those which are
largely in their natural state, become the refuge of
the imagination. Children spend their childhood
exploring them. They accumulate memories concerning
their peculiar features. Inexorably they become part
of those children, and their identity.
8.4 The Scenic Value of Open Space
Surroundings affect our moods. It is the very craving
for trees, and relief from the monotony of red roofs,
that drives many people to the outskirts of the
metropolitan area. Open spaces, therefore, provide
relief from urbanization.
for trees, and relief from the monotony of red roofs,
that drives many people to the outskirts of the
metropolitan area. Open spaces, therefore, provide
relief from urbanization.
8.5 Changing Attitudes to Open Space
The chapter explores the change in attitude to open
space and the reasons for that change.
space and the reasons for that change.
8.6 Adequacy of Open Space
The demand for open space will vary depending upon
matters such as:-
matters such as:-
- the age structure of the local
population
- residential density
- the number of flats and home-units
- the number who own their own homes
- the level of car ownership
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8.7 The Suburbs Affected by the Major Options
There are a few local government areas worse off,
in terms of open space, than those suburbs affected
by the options under consideration by this Inquiry
and especially by the Cooks River Option. In almost
every case the suburbs which will be affected rank
in the bottom 25% in terms of open space per 1,000.
The poverty is accentuated by the relatively high
number of flat-dwellers, carless homes, of persons
occupying rented accommodation and persons living
under conditions of high residential density.
in terms of open space, than those suburbs affected
by the options under consideration by this Inquiry
and especially by the Cooks River Option. In almost
every case the suburbs which will be affected rank
in the bottom 25% in terms of open space per 1,000.
The poverty is accentuated by the relatively high
number of flat-dwellers, carless homes, of persons
occupying rented accommodation and persons living
under conditions of high residential density.
It is accentuated further by the fact that the
local government areas are clustered around each
other. The impoverished of one area cannot seek
out plentiful open space in an adjacent area. The
poverty is shared.
local government areas are clustered around each
other. The impoverished of one area cannot seek
out plentiful open space in an adjacent area. The
poverty is shared.
8.8 The Concept of Compensatory Open Space
A number of submissions have suggested that if one
of the major options should be built, steps should
be taken to purchase equivalent open space in the
near vicinity so that the community is no worse off,
in terms of open space.
of the major options should be built, steps should
be taken to purchase equivalent open space in the
near vicinity so that the community is no worse off,
in terms of open space.
Others disagree. Some oppose the very idea of
resuming more homes to provide open space. There
are others who maintain that a road inevitably degrades
the open space which is left. It is misleading,
they suggest, to compare the open space taken by the
road, and that replaced, because there is a
qualitative change in that which remains.
resuming more homes to provide open space. There
are others who maintain that a road inevitably degrades
the open space which is left. It is misleading,
they suggest, to compare the open space taken by the
road, and that replaced, because there is a
qualitative change in that which remains.
