Reproduced
below are relevant pages from Department of Main Roads official Ken
Dobinson's report on his study trip to North America in 1979. They
include some comments on Miami and very perceptive observations on
contemporary opinions on the end of the freeway building culture,
perceptive comments on social inequality and poverty, and the role of
the fuel price rise, consequent on Khomeini's ascent in 1979 Iran and the
dominance of OPEC.
These factors were driving Jimmy Carter's presidency, and despite fuel prices remaining high until about 1985, Reagan and the Republican Right instilled a very different philosophy within America. The restraint of car culture, the emphasis on fuel economy and environmental issues (and international human rights) were all replaced by an unabashed worship of the "American way of life". The Carter approach was widely hated and the Reagan presidency was, consequently, popular.
In summary, the Dobinson report was one which represents much of the thinking in 1979, later rejected during the Reagan era and which has only partially been restored by Barack Obama.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dobinson, K.W. Car Cult Country: being report on tour of North America, 4 August – 2 September 1979: final report. Sydney, Traffic Section DMR, September 1979
These factors were driving Jimmy Carter's presidency, and despite fuel prices remaining high until about 1985, Reagan and the Republican Right instilled a very different philosophy within America. The restraint of car culture, the emphasis on fuel economy and environmental issues (and international human rights) were all replaced by an unabashed worship of the "American way of life". The Carter approach was widely hated and the Reagan presidency was, consequently, popular.
In summary, the Dobinson report was one which represents much of the thinking in 1979, later rejected during the Reagan era and which has only partially been restored by Barack Obama.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dobinson, K.W. Car Cult Country: being report on tour of North America, 4 August – 2 September 1979: final report. Sydney, Traffic Section DMR, September 1979
2. The Transport
Scene in North America
2.1 An Overview
The U.S.A. has about 20 times the population of Australia in
a similar land area. It is an affluent country with sufficient capital to solve
community problems of all types - health, social and transport. The Americans
display the incentive to pursue solutions to their problems with vigor and they
have the national pride to see solutions are carried to fruition. Mistakes are
made but work is done and again the country has the capital to correct most errors.
A similar resolve extends to the U.S. neighbour of Canada. However,
with only 10% of the population of the U.S.A. and a large land space the
Canadians need to be more careful in their allocation of capital. Mexico
appears as the poor relation to the U.S.A. but again major works are being achieved
and national pride prevails.
Social Structure and Problems
There appears a greater disparity in wealth of citizens in
U.S.A. than with Australians which seems to give rise to more significant
social stresses. There are areas of extreme wealth, for example, Fifth Avenue
in New York and Beverly Hills in Los Angeles that would have no counterpart in
Australia. At the other extreme we are fortunate not to have the ghettos of
very poor people, generally coloured, that were a feature of nearly every major
city visited, for example, Harlem in New York and Watts in Los Angeles.
Unexpectedly, the Americans appear to fail to come to grips
with the social problems of these poor areas until they exacerbate out of all
proportion. For example, little was done in the depressing Watts suburb of Los
Angeles until riots erupted and buildings were burnt. Only then were massive
amounts of capital channelled into a major redevelopment scheme with new housing
and new community structures and which were implemented in an extraordinarily
short period.
-6-
Expenditure on Commercial Development:
In contrast to this apparent reluctance to face up to expenditure
to meet social problems there is massive expenditure on commercial development
in most cities - New York was the exception. This commercial development
spreads into the suburban areas and extends into the rural zones with little
apparent control. Although it was appreciated that a demand existed it was
disconcerting to see the entire beach front in Miami and Honolulu taken up with
high rise hotels and apartments. At Honolulu the beach environment has
necessitated the construction of a concrete wall in the surf area to obviate
beach erosion. (Photo 1).
Photo 1. Beach frontage at Honolulu
Even more disconcerting was the spread of development over
the 150 odd kilometres of natural island in Florida. Keys with apparently only
one or two of the multitude of islands set aside to remain completely
undeveloped.
Expenditure on Transport:
Again in contrast to the failure to meet social costs, the
affluence of the North American has in part prompted the construction of the
extensive freeway system that covers the entire country and extends into most
of his cities. These freeways provide an excellent facility for moving people
and goods around the country. However, they have had a detrimental effect on
the city downtown areas where they have been
-7-
established in chasing the insatiable demand for commuter movement.
This extends to the dispersion of the city development and the despoiling of
the city environment - socially, visually and from the ever present smog. (Photo
2).
Photo 2. Downtown Los Angeles
Again the affluence of the North American allows him to
“buy” his way out of some of the downtown problems – rebuild the town centre –
the solution proposed in Miami at a cost of $US 2 billion.
This affluence has also enabled the Americans to embark on
the establishment of subway systems in the major cities or on the extension of
existing subways where they previously operated. San Francisco, Toronto,
Montreal and Washington have all invested in subway construction in recent
years while Miami and Los Angeles have subways proposed for early commencement.
The subways require massive expenditures of capital, invariably operate at a
loss and make only a small contribution to easing the commuter movement: one
exception is the Metro in Montreal discussed below. It seems in most instances
the subways have been established as an over reaction to an abundance of
freeways and to the paucity of public transport in the cities rather than in
response to a need established by comprehensive study or justified by cost
effectiveness.
-8-
The Concern for Fuel:
There is a real national concern for the shortage of fuel.
This has resulted in a concerted national effort to save fuel, to find
alternative supplies and to develop alternative fuels, particularly for the
motor car. The "odd-even" refueling system still operates in
California and few service stations in the city centres open at weekends. At
the personal level this concern is not so well portrayed. Even those who
express a genuine concern do not appear to be making a real effort to reduce
trips while others are disregarding the problem viewing it as yet another
conspiracy by the multinationals to lift oil prices. However, after the initial
panic buying from the scarcity of petrol traffic volumes in California have
shown an overall 4-6% reduction.
The Predominance of the Car:
The reliance on the car was the predominant characteristic
of the Americans’ Culture. The car is used for almost any and every movement
between one place and another. “In Las Angeles the free man gets into his free
car and drives it wherever he feels like. He decides the route of his soul” (B.
Stein – 1979). The predominance of the car even effects airport terminal
layouts which are generally sprawling and conducive only to movement by car.
Ease and Investment in Parking:
It is easy to park in the cities and usually relatively
inexpensive. Numerous surface car lots are dispersed over each city centre.
These however, spread the development and make it less pleasant and long in distance
to walk about. With the predominance of the car there is little public transport
in the city centre and where it exists the service is poor. The American answer
to this problem, which he recognises, is to construct a "downtown people
mover” – a light rail system with closely spaced stations - in the city centre.
These are proposed in Los Angeles and Miami: the 3 km system in Miami will cost
$67 million ($US 75 million).
It is of interest in the downtown city scene that the
surface car lot in U.S.A. is a viable investment. This is because local taxes are
levied on the improved capital of the site not on the unimproved as in Australia.
This also explains the recent wealth of the Miami City Council which as a consequence
of extensive building development has enjoyed huge increases in tax revenue.
-9-
The Future of Freeways in Cities and Rural Areas:
Freeway construction has halted in the inner area of most
cities in North America. It is accepted in Los Angeles that there will be no
more freeways built in that city for the next 20 years, except for two minor
extensions to render the system comprehensive. Los Angeles however, has 1,100
km of its planned 2,500 km freeway system in service to serve 9 ½ million
people. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Los Angeles Freeway System
-10-
Likewise , although Florida still believes in freeways, that
State recognises that there will be no more freeway construction in the Miami
area this century: but again Miami, which has a population of about 1½ million, has in service all 150 km of
freeways it determined it would need by the year 2000.
Toronto and Montreal in Canada and San Francisco in U.S.A.
also expect few, if any, further freeways to be built near downtown in the
foreseeable future. These cities also have well developed freeway systems
although generally they lack some in the downtown area that are considered
vital to provide a comprehensive system: invariably these links have been withheld
as a consequence of public outcry.
This situation is in marked contrast to that in Sydney where
there are virtually no freeways compared to the American cities - jut over 50
km in fragmented lengths in the Sydney metropolitan area of 3 million people.
Freeway construction outside the city areas to link the
cities and complete the interstate system seems to be proceeding unrestrained.
At many locations missing links were being constructed and at others, freeways
were being widened to accommodate increased demand. There were also locations
at which sections of older freeway were undergoing major reconstruction with
even bridges being replaced.
Overall, it is understood that the freeway effort in North America
has declined over recent years due to the lesser highway funds available and
the more comprehensive study required of environmental effect. This again must
be put in perspective with New South Wales - California, which has five times
the population of New South Wales in a similar land area, has invested $13,500
million ($US 15 billion) in freeway construction to date compared with $266
million in New South Wales to date.
2.2 City Planning
City Planning /Transport Planning Interaction:
Transport planners and town planners seem generally to be each
pursuing their independent conflicting courses in North America as in
Australia. Transport planners continue to view the city plan, as developed by
town planners, as fixed and immutable and to which they must simply use their transportation
models to determine the transport system necessary. Town planners view the
transport system as something that the transport planners must devise to make
the city plan work but which at the same time must not adversely affect
important parts of the city as a freeway does! There was only limited evidence
of genuine effort to integrate land use and transport planning.
-11-
In the past it seems the transport planners view has prevailed.
Extensive city freeway construction proceeded to the benefit of movement in the
metropolis but to the detriment of the downtown area of the city as referred to
earlier.
Also freeways have not prevented peak period congestion.
Severe congestion occurs on the freeways in Los Angeles in peak periods in
approach to the downtown area and extends onto the surface street system. Even
in Miami, which as indicated has completed its freeways for the year 2000, the freeways
in approach to the downtown area were oversaturated at 8.30 a.m. on a weekday.
(Photo 3)
Photo 3. Freeway in
approach to downtown Miami at 8.30 a.m. on a weekday
It now seems that the town planners view is predominant with
freeways stopped or curtailed in many city centres. There is an increasing
emphasis, as indicated above, on subway construction, but especially on traffic
systems management to optimise the use of existing transport resources of all
types
The Influence of Transport on City Shape:
City planners are conscious of the spread of their cities
where freeways or subways or both have been extended from the city centre into
the outlying low density suburbs. These transport facilities have improved
access for many people to the low density residential areas which has probably improved
their residential lifestyle. However, transport demand resulting from the many
longer trips by commuters is now greater than before the transport facilities
were provided.
-12-
This is the consequence of the BART subway system in San
Francisco. Similarly, the freeways and subway in Toronto have caused a rapid spread
of the city outwards placing the freeway constructed as a by-pass within the
suburban development. The extensive freeway development in Miami has also
accentuated the residential sprawl. So the improved residential living has been
at the expense of longer commuter trips on oversaturated transport systems.
City Planning and Transportation Modelling:
The U.S. Department of Transportation is conscious of the
trends outlined above. It is also aware of the deficiencies in the conventional
transportation model to determine the cities transport needs, which model is
still used for this purpose in Sydney. This is because the conventional transportation
model assumes a static relationship between the spacial location of population,
job location and the transport system. Urban structure is much more complex and
any significant change in structure, as represented by a major transport facility,
will have a variety of effects geographic, social, economic - to mention a few.
This was the case in San Francisco, Toronto and Miami where the transport system
designed to meet demand did not do so but simply caused a spread in the spacial
location of the population.
The experience of cumbersome planning processes that have
not provided an answer to city planning or to the transport needs of the city
has led the United States Federal Administration to establish a small, high level,
expert group to develop an alternative land use/transport modelling process. This
is the most significant project in hand in the area of city transport planning
and is intended to yield a process for rapid assessment of the consequences of
proposed transport systems and urban structure alternatives.
The group is a partnership of the United States and West
German Governments and the World Bank. The Transport Road Research Laboratory
in the United Kingdom has been invited to join. I have received a similar
invitation concerning Australia's involvement as a consequence of the project I
am undertaking at the Environmental Centre at Macquarie University.
Interesting and generally unexpected initial findings of
this work, concerning travel parameters are:-
·
Households allocate a proportion of their income
to travel which is relatively stable both between cities and over time.
·
Trip makers tend to have a daily door-to-door
travel time budget which is stable both between cities and over time.
·
Trip makers endeavour to maximise their daily travel
distance within constraints of household money budget and their own time budget,
i.e. they maximise their spacial opportunities.
-13-
Also the U.S. Department of Transportation is studying “The
effect of beltways on land use”. Beltways are freeways which encircle the city:
examples exist in Toronto and Washington D.C. There is a concern for the spread
of the city by their construction and also from the development of shopping
centres adjacent to them with high level access to large sections of the
population which is causing a decline in the city centre commercial zone.
It appears that city planning and transport planning are gradually
moving towards the interactive basis. In some cities town planners and
transport planners were discussing their proposals with each other as their
respective plans were being developed: this was the case in Miami. In others
there appeared little interaction: this appeared so in Toronto even though the
two parties were part of the one authority and town planners had planned major
regional centres in the suburbs to ease transport demand.
This interaction has extended to interaction with the public
through public participation programmes. In fact, it is now a statutory
requirement with regard to transport projects. These public participation
programmes vary in impact depending upon whether or not the authority involved sees
it as enabling a better plan to be produced or simply as a requirement thrust
upon it, as is evident in some quarters in New South Wales. Miami claims to
have the most successful public participation programme in U.S.A. A copy of
that city's programme is attached as Appendix I . This programme certainly has
resulted in the development of a comprehensive plan for Dade County, Miami, embracing
population and land use, environment and social interaction, utilities and
transportation. Fig. 3 is an outline of the programme in action for developing a
plan for just one station in the proposed rapid transport system.
Fig. 3. Programme for
Development of Transit Station in Miami
(Source: Regional Profile, Metropolitan County…)
-14-
It is of interest to also note that in Miami the Government
is taking the lead in the redevelopment of the city by major investment in Government
(Federal, State and Local) office buildings in the downtown area.
One evident result of the failure of adequate public
consultation was at Niagara Falls. Here there was a conflict between the use of
a delightful park overlooking Niagara Falls and the parkway (freeway) linking
Fort Niagara and Buffalo which bisected the park. The result was the closure of
the freeway across the park even though this interrupted the continuity of the
freeway and required vehicles to divert to the surface street system over the
intervening length. (Photo 4).
Photo 4. Parkway
closed through Niagara Falls Park
Lessons for New South Wales:
The social and environmental structures of cities in various
countries are different and it is dangerous to merely transfer the experiences
of cities in North America to New South Wales.
However, there are lessons in city planning to be learnt from
North America for Sydney and other cities in New South Wales. Most important is
that transport is highly significant in city planning. Sydney has a well developed
suburban rail system and an extensive bus system but has barely scratched the surface
in the provision of a comprehensive road system which must include freeways. Similarly,
Newcastle and Wollongong have rail and bus systems operating but no compatible
road system.
-15-
The important lesson from North America in the future planning
of these cities is the need to provide for integrated development of land use
and transport with the single objective of better meeting the needs and desires
of the people in the city concerned as determined from soundly based public
consultation schemes. Biased approaches by town planners, by transport
planners, by public transport enthusiasts and by car lobbyists must be avoided
if this is to be achieved.
2.3 Transport Planning and Funding
The Trend to Balancing Needs of all Modes of Transport:
Planning for provision of transport facilities in North
America as in New South Wales must allow for more extensive consideration of environmental
effect than some years ago. At the same time the disparity between the transport
authorities assessed needs and funds available widens year by year, as in this State,
making it essential that the limited funds be used to the greatest advantage.
The competition for funds by public transport protagonists
and freeway supporters is much the same in North America as in Australia. However,
there is a more noticeable trend in North America than in Australia of the
acceptance of the need for a balanced transport system in which each mode plays
its part and for an amelioration of any adverse environmental effect.
The balancing of transport needs and of transport with laud
use is generally by committee similar to URTAC. In North America these
committees suffer as in this state from each authority largely pursuing its own
interests rather than striving to generate a fully integrated scheme.
This attitude of comprehensive or balanced transport is
reflected in the U.S. Department of Transportation (Federal Highway
Administration Division) permitting the use of the former exclusive Federal
Highway Funds to be applied to subway schemes, bus extension programmes, bus
lane schemes, park and ride facilities, pedestrian and bicycle facilities and
in fact to all transport systems management projects whether or not they are
highway related. Appendix II indicates the range of transport systems
management projects to which Federal Aid Highway Funds may be applied.
Transport Tax:
Tax is levied on petroleum at Federal, State and County levels.
In California this was a total of 11 cents per U.S. gallon, comprising 4½ cents
Federal, 3½ cents State and 3½ cents County tax. Funds collected from road
users are utilised for general purposes in North America as in Australia. This
is illustrated in Fig. 4.
-16-
The Typical Motorists Annual Tax Contribution
Fig 4. The Typical Motorists Annual Tax Contribution
and Dispersment in California
and Dispersment in California
(Source: Highways: the Social Dimensions.
Automobile Club of South California, 1978.)
Automobile Club of South California, 1978.)
The Automobile Club of Southern California (the largest
automobile club in U.S.A.), like the N.R.M.A., campaigns actively against the
diversion of road funds for other than road purposes. However, unlike the
N.R.M.A. this club, and it is alleged in common with automobile clubs in U.S.A.,
supports the use of road funds for transport purposes other than roads where
the road user benefits indirectly, e.g. on park and ride terminals, busways and
car pool schemes which reduce vehicles on the road and hence the delay to other
road users.
-17-
PAGE MISSING
- 18 -
The Application for New South Wales:
The freeway continues to be the most efficient and safest
means by which to move people and goods by road and the car is still the mode
preferred by most people for personal travel. This particularly applies to
movement between cities and explains the continued emphasis on completing the
interstate freeway systems between cities in North America.
However, in cities, while the freeway is efficient for the
movement of people and goods throughout the city, it has not satisfied the
commuter demand as highway planners thought. It is in this area that it is most
important that a balanced or integrated approach be taken to transport as practised
by CALTRANS in California with the highest priority being given to optimising
usage of existing facilities.
2.4 Public Transport
The extent of work on new subway construction and in
extending existing ones over recent years in North American cities warrants
special mention of these facilities. As previously indicated this was the
situation in almost every major city visited.
However, as also indicated in every case, except one, the
subway system is heavily subsidised and it has not made the contribution to
easing commuter movement that the planners expected. This is attributed largely
to the system being designed as a transport planning and engineering exercise rather
than as a marketing one.
BART in San Francisco:
For example, Bart the San Francisco system (Photo 5), provides
fully automated, speedy air-conditioned rail cars with every comfort passengers
could desire and with free spacious parking areas at every rail station. However,
it is located under one street at the edge of the downtown area and it skirts
the suburban areas it aims to serve. Also long lengths of rail system, including
stations, are located in the freeway median. BART runs only three services per
hour to suburban stations but there is no fixed timetable. Thereby a suburban dweller
must travel to the freeway by car to join the subway train which leaves at an
uncertain time and expect to use a bus at the other end of his journey. The
alternative is to continue on the freeway in his car right to his work destination
- the choice is obvious.
-19-
Photo 5. BART in San Francisco
In San Francisco and also in Toronto the subway has been
extended into the low density suburban areas. This has contributed to suburban
sprawl in these cities which has further increased demand for movement between
the suburbs and the downtown area. Thus while the subways have contributed to
the transport system in their cities by carrying large numbers of passengers
they have done so at increased cost to the community at large to subsidise the transport
system and they have exacerbated the commuter problem rather than eased it.
The Montreal METRO:
The one exception is the Metro subway system in Montreal. It
is truly exceptional as it is claimed that it operates at a profit. The subway
is an ultra-modern automated system providing an excellent service with
attractive comfortable rail cars on rubber tyres (Photo 6). It is also an excellent
piece of transport marketing. Its basic success is attributed to it positively
catering for the needs and desires of its customers - in this sense it provides
a transport facility more attractive than travel by private car.
See Dobinson's Appendix IV - Miami Downtown People Mover