VOLUME III - Table of Contents

D. SOCIAL CRITERIA

I. DISPLACEMENT OF PEOPLE AND PROPERTY................. 5

1. What are the Effects of Displacement?.......... 5

1.1 Objectives and Criteria.................. 5

1.2 The Effects of Displacement.............. 5

1.3 Vulnerability of Certain Groups to
    Displacement............................. 8

2. Surveys of People Who Have Been Displaced..... 11

2.1 The Position in New South Wales......... 11

2.2 The Experience in the United Kingdom.... 11

2.3 Community’s Views in the Need for
    the Facility............................ 12

3. Compensation for Persons Displaced............ 13

3.1 The General Principles.................. 13

3.1.1 Introduction..................... 13

3.1.2 Who is Entitled to Compensation?. 14

3.1.3 What are the Principles for
      Assessing Compensation?.......... 14

3.1.4 The Time at which Compensation
      is Payable....................... 15

3.2 Reactions to Compensation Paid.......... 16

3.3 Suggestions for Law Reform.............. 18

3.4 Information about Acquisition Practice
    and Principles.......................... 20

4. Displacement of Business...................... 20

4.1 Principles of Compensation.............. 20

4.2 Employees Not Compensated............... 20

4.3 Importance of Survey.................... 21

5. Community Facilities within the Road
   Reservation................................... 21

5.1 Open Space Areas Resumed................ 21

5.2 Resumption of Schools and School Ground. 22

5.3 Resumption of Other Community Facilities 22

II. PEOPLE AND PROPERTY NOT DISPLACED BUT
    INJURIOUSLY AFFECTED.............................. 23

1. The Problem of Injurious Affectation.......... 23

1.1 Objectives and Criteria................. 23

1.2 The Submissions to the Inquiry.......... 23

2. Reduction in Real Estate Values............... 24

2.1 Difficulty in Demonstrating Reduction
    in Value................................ 24

2.2 Attempts to Measure the Loss of Real
    Estate Value............................ 24

3. Compensation for Injurious Affectation........ 27

3.1 The General Principles.................. 27

3.2 Condemnation of the Present Law by
    Law Reformers........................... 28

3.3 Affect Upon Business.................... 29

4. Variables Relevant to the Assessment.......... 29

4.1 Private Property Affected............... 29

4.2 Community Property Affected............. 30

III. PEOPLE NOT DISPLACED BUT INDIRECTLY AFFECTED..... 31

1. Effect Upon Local Government Areas............ 31

1.1 The So-called ‘Tax Base’ Effect......... 31

1.2 Loss of Open Space...................... 31

IV. SEVERANCE......................................... 32

1. Description of Severance...................... 32

1.1 Definition.............................. 32

1.2 Importance of Severance to the Community 33

1.3 Types of Severance...................... 34

1.4 ‘Building Down the Cracks’.............. 36

1.5 Severance Caused by Construction........ 38

2. Judging the Severity of Severance............. 38

2.1 Community Cohesion...................... 38

2.2 Inquiry’s Concern Over Absence of
    Investigation........................... 40

2.3 The Mobility Index...................... 41

2.4 ‘Neighbourhood Social Interaction Index’ 42

2.5 The ‘Social Feasibility Model’.......... 42

2.6 The Concept of Substitutability......... 44

2.7 The Isolation of Emergency Services..... 45

2.8 The Nature of the Transition of the
    Neighbourhood by Means of the Highway
    Facility................................ 45

2.9 Opportunities to Reduce Severance....... 46

3. The Effects of Severance...................... 46

3.1 Does it Affect Health?.................. 46

3.2 Effect Will be Greatest on Pedestrians
    and Upon Certain Facilities............. 47

3.3 Communities’ Capacity for Resilience.... 47

4. Amelioration of Severance..................... 50

4.1 Abandoning an Option which Causes
    Severe Severance in Favour of One
    Which Does Not.......................... 50

4.2 Alteration of Alignment................. 50

4.3 Road Design............................. 51

4.4 Bridges and Underpasses................. 52

4.5 Selection of a Route Within a Corridor.. 54

V. ACCIDENTS.......................................... 57

1. Factors Relevant to Safety.................... 57

1.1 Catalogue of Objectives and Criteria.... 57

1.2 The Cost of Road Accidents.............. 58

1.3 What are the Causes of Road Accidents?.. 59

1.4 Design Features of the Road............. 61

1.5 Reduction of Conflict Between Vehicles
    and Between Pedestrian/Vehicles......... 62

1.6 Vulnerability of Certain Persons to
    Road Accidents.......................... 64

1.7 Road Accidents in the Southern
    Metropolitan Area....................... 65

1.8 Public Transport and Safety............. 66

2. Freeways...................................... 66

2.1 Lower Accident Rates.................... 66

2.2 The Number of Accidents................. 67

2.3 Accidents on Feeder Roads............... 68

2.4 Are Freeways Value for Money in
    Terms of Safety?........................ 68

3. Trucks and Safety............................. 69

3.1 The Involvement of Trucks in Accidents.. 69

3.2 Truck Characteristics Affecting Safety.. 70

3.3 Maintenance of Trucks................... 71

E. ENVIRONMENTAL CRITERIA

I. THE ENVIRONMENT.................................... 79

1. What is ‘The Environment’?.................... 79

1.1 The Terms of Reference.................. 79

1.2 The Way in Which Other Instruments
    Define ‘Environment’.................... 79

2. Changing Attitudes to the Environment......... 80

2.1 Attitudes Can Change Rapidly............ 80

2.2 The So-Called ‘Freeway Revolt’.......... 81

II. NOISE............................................. 83

1. Description of Noise.......................... 83

1.1 Definition of Noise..................... 83

1.2 The Decibel Unit (dB(A))................ 83

2. Traffic Noise................................. 87

2.1 Traffic Noise and the dB(A) Scale....... 87

2.2 The Contribution of Heavy Vehicles...... 88

2.3 The Attenuation of Noise With Distance.. 91

3. Effects of Noise.............................. 93

3.1 The Adjacent Land Use................... 93

3.2 The Insulation from Noise Within the
    Home.................................... 93

3.3 Noise as a ‘Destroyer of Residential
    Amenity’................................ 95

3.4 Physiological Effects of Noise.......... 96

3.5 The Psychological Effects of Noise...... 96

3.6 Interference with the Social and
    Business Activities..................... 98

4. Noise Standards............................... 99

4.1 Public Surveys.......................... 99

4.2 Different Standards for Different Land
    Users.................................. 100

4.3 Standards Association of Australia..... 104

5. Noise Measurement............................ 105

5.1 The Apparatus Used to Measure Noise.... 105

5.2 Measurement of Background Noise........ 106

6. Noise Prediction............................. 108

6.1 Noise Prediction Models................ 108

6.2 The Burgess Model...................... 109

6.3 Limitations of the Burgess Model....... 110

6.4 Other Noise Models..................... 113

6.5 Reservations Concerning Noise Modelling 114

7. The Ways of Combating Noise.................. 115

7.1 Introduction........................... 115

7.2 Measures Dealing with Traffic Flow..... 115

7.3 The Highway Design..................... 117

7.4 Alterations to Land Use................ 118

7.5 Insulation of Buildings................ 119

7.6 The Provision of Barriers or Earth
    Berms.................................. 121

7.7 Insulation of Motor Vehicles........... 123

7.8 Encouragement of High Occupancy
    Vehicles............................... 125

7.9 Encouragement of Other Transport Modes. 125

III. AIR POLLUTION................................... 127

1. Description of Air Pollution................. 127

1.1 Definition of Air Pollution............ 127

1.2 ‘Normal Clean Air’..................... 127

1.3 Classification of Air Pollutants....... 128

1.4 Primary Pollutants..................... 128

1.5 Photochemical smog..................... 130

1.6 The Vulnerability of Sydney to
    Photochemical Smog..................... 130

2. Causes of Air Pollution.........................

2.1 Classification of Pollutants........... 132

2.2 Is the Motor Vehicle to Blame for
    Air Pollution.......................... 133

2.3 Factors Affecting the Production of
    Pollutants............................. 135

3. The Degree of Exposure....................... 138

3.1 The Relevant Variables................. 138

3.2 The Concentration of Pollutants ....... 138

3.3 Dispersion of Pollutants............... 138

3.4 The Influence of Topography............ 139

3.5 The Sensitivity of the Individual...... 140

3.6 Local and Regional Significance of
    Pollutants............................. 141

3.7 Land Uses Exposed to Air Pollution..... 142

4. Community Concern with Air Pollution......... 142

4.1 Introduction........................... 142

4.2 Previous Manifestations of Public
    Concern ............................... 142

4.3 Submissions to the Inquiry............. 144

5. The Effects of Air Pollution................. 144

5.1 Classification of Pollutants........... 144

5.2 Exposure to Dust and Dirt.............. 145

5.3 The Effects of Carbon Monoxide......... 146

5.4 The Effects of Nitrogen Oxides......... 148

5.5 Hydrocarbons........................... 149

5.6 The Effects of Photochemical Smog...... 150

5.6.1 Introduction.................... 150

5.6.2 Effects of Smog Upon Health..... 152

5.7 What is an appropriate standard for
    Photochemical Smog Exposure............ 157

5.8 How Bad is the Photochemical Smog
    in Sydney?............................. 159

5.9 Control of Photochemical Smog.......... 159

6. Effects of Exposure to Lead Pollution........ 159

6.1 Why is Lead Used in Petrol............. 159

6.2 The Effects of Lead Poisoning.......... 161

6.3 The Effects of Low Concentrations of
    Lead................................... 162

6.4 The Link Between Lead Concentrations
    and Traffic............................ 163

6.5 The Effects Upon Health of Lead in
    the Air................................ 164

6.6 Is There an Appropriate Standard for
    Lead Exposure?......................... 167

6.7 Ambient Lead Levels in Sydney.......... 168

6.8 What is Being Done Overseas............ 169

6.9 Alternative Proposals in Australia..... 170

6.9.1 Introduction.................... 170

6.9.2 Lead Filters.................... 170

6.9.3 Inducing People to use Lower
      Grade Petrol.................... 171

6.10 The Use of Catalytic Converters....... 172

6.11 The Relevance of Lead to Evaluation... 174

7. The Measurement and Prediction of Air
   Pollution.................................... 174

7.1 The Measurement of Air Pollution....... 174

7.2 The Modelling Procedure to Predict Air
    Pollution.............................. 174

7.3 The Dispersion Model................... 175

7.4 Predicting Levels of Photochemical
    Smog................................... 176

7.5 Reservations Concerning the Modelling
    Process................................ 177

8. The Ways of Combating Air Pollution.......... 179

8.1 Introduction........................... 179

8.2 Discouraging the Use of Motor Vehicles. 180

8.3 Options Concentrating on Traffic Flow.. 181

8.4 A Policy Directed at Encouraging
    Pollution Free Fuel.................... 182

8.5 Emission Control....................... 183

IV. VIBRATION........................................ 185

1. Description.................................. 185

1.1 Definition............................. 185

1.2 Unit of Measurement.................... 185

1.3 Classification of Vibrations........... 186

1.4 Extreme Sensitivity of Human Beings to
    Vibration.............................. 186

2. Ground-Borne Vibrations...................... 187

2.1 Causes of Ground-Borne Vibrations...... 187

2.2 Attenutation with Distance............. 187

2.3 Perception of Vibrations............... 188

2.4 Effects on Property.................... 189

3. Air-Borne Vibration.......................... 190

3.1 Possible Causes........................ 190

3.2 Attenuation of Air-Borne Vibrations
    with Distance.......................... 190

3.3 Effects Upon Property.................. 190

3.4 The Effect Upon Human Beings........... 191

4. Evaluation of Options........................ 193

4.1 Introduction........................... 193

4.2 The Importance of Heavy Vehicles....... 193

4.3 Combating Vibration.................... 193

V. ECOLOGICAL CRITERIA............................... 195

1. Description of Ecology....................... 195

1.1 Definition............................. 195

1.2 Catalogue of Ecological Issues......... 197

1.3 Criteria for Assessing Ecological
    Effects................................ 197

1.4 Consolidation of Consequences at Two
    Stages................................. 197

1.5 The Hydrological Cycle................. 198

1.6 Human Intervention is Not Necessarily
    Bad.................................... 200

2. Land Capability.............................. 201

2.1 The Concept of ‘Land Capability’....... 201

2.2 Applications of Concept to Cooks River. 202

3. Ecology of the Areas Affected by the Options. 202

3.1 The Cooks River Valley................. 202

3.2 The Wolli Creek Valley................. 204

VI. VISUAL INTRUSION................................. 211

1. Introduction................................. 211

1.1 Objectives and Criteria................ 211

1.2 The Visual Study of Botany Bay......... 213

1.3 Does the Presence of a Road Degrade an
    Environment?........................... 214

2. The Nature of the Transformation of the Area. 215

2.1 Relevant Variables..................... 215

2.2 Nature of the Landscape................ 216

2.3 The Nature of the Land Use............. 217

2.4 The Nature of the Road................. 217

2.5 The Extent to which the Transition is
    Sudden and Dramatic.................... 219

2.6 Attitude Towards the Roads............. 220

3. The Persons Who Witness the Transformation
   of an Area................................... 222

3.1 Introduction........................... 222

3.2 Residents.............................. 222

3.3 Persons Who Use the Open Space......... 223

3.4 The Views of Railway Users............. 224

3.5 Road Users............................. 224

3.6 Visual Intrusion if Nothing is Done.... 224

4. Techniques for Assessing Visual Intrusion.... 225

4.1 Introduction........................... 225

4.2 Landscape Disturbance as Demonstrated
    by Road Costing........................ 226

4.3 Land Capability........................ 226

4.4 A Visual Rating System................. 226

4.5 The Prominence of an Area in Relation
    to Surrounding Areas................... 232

4.6 Visual Aids to Assist the Public....... 233

VII. OPEN SPACE...................................... 236

1. The Role of Open Space....................... 236

1.1 Introduction........................... 236

1.2 Recreational Role...................... 236

1.3 Educational Role....................... 237

1.4 Safety of Children..................... 239

1.5 Open Space Gives Identity to a Local
    Area................................... 241

1.6 The Scenic Value of Open Space......... 242

1.7 Intrinsic Interest and Beauty.......... 243

2. Changing Attitudes to Open Space............. 243

2.1 Before the Cumberland Scheme 1948...... 243

2.2 Before the Cumberland Plan 1948........ 245

2.3 Planning After 1948.................... 247

2.4 Factors Identified as Affecting
    Changed Attitudes to Open Space........ 248

3. The Adequacy of Open Space................... 250

3.1 Relevant Variables..................... 250

3.2 Standards.............................. 252

3.3 The Relative Poverty of Local Government
    Areas Affected by the Options.......... 253

4. Open Space and the Proposed Road............. 257

4.1 Introduction........................... 257

4.2 The Width of the Open Space Area
    through which the Road Passes.......... 257

4.3 The Character of the Open Space Taken.. 258

4.4 Will the Road Degrade the Open Space
    which Remains?......................... 259

4.5 The Use of Open Space for Road......... 259

4.6 The Concept of Compensatory Open Space. 260

TABLES

Table  1 – Socio-Economic Characteristics
           of Study Area......................... 49

Table  2 – Causes of Motor Vehicle Accidents..... 59

Table  3 – Accident Cost According to Type of
           Road.................................. 67

Table  4 – Brunswick Prescription Study.......... 98

Table  5 – Acceptable Noise Levels for Various
           Land Uses (Curry & Anderson)......... 103

Table  6 – Australian Standards Association
          (Noise)............................... 105

Table  7 – Calculated Background Sounds Levels for
           Different Areas Containing Residences 106

Table  8 – Australian Design Rules (Noise)...... 125

Table  9 – Emissions of Hydrocarbons in the Sydney
           Region (After allowing for controls
           gazetted for introduction in 1981
           and 1982)............................ 135

Table 10 – Representative Composition of Exhaust
           Gases Parts/Million by Volume........ 136

Table 11 – Comparative Lead Phase Down Schedules 169

Table 12 – Average Emission Test Results Comparing
           Petrol and LPG....................... 182

Table 13 – Land Capability (Slopes)............. 208

Table 14 – Land Capability (Soils).............. 208

Table 15 – Land Capability (Geology)............ 209

Table 16 – Land Capability (Hydrology).......... 209

Table 17 – Land Capability (Natural Features)... 210

Table 18 – Landscape Quality.................... 230

Table 19 – Zone of Prominence................... 232

Table 20 – Death by Accident of Children (as
           a % of all deaths in age group....... 240

FIGURES

Figure  1 – Traffic Impact on Property Values.... 26

Figure  2 – Tancred Avenue, Kyeemagh............. 34

Figure  3 – Bestiv Street, Rockdale.............. 35

Figure  4 – Possible Conflicts at Intersections.. 62

Figure  5 – The Decibel Scale.................... 84

Figure  6 – Noise Levels......................... 85

Figure  7 – Noise Exposure at 30 Metres From Road
            Carrying Traffic Including 20% Heavy
            Vehicles at 75km/Hour................ 88

Figure  8 – Attenuation with Distance Over
            Hard Surface......................... 91

Figure  9 – Reduction of Noise Entering
Buildings........................................ 94

Figure 10 – Alternative Designs for Noise
Barriers........................................ 122

Figure 11 – The Hydrological Cycle.............. 199

Figure 12 – Visual Catchments of Road Options... 221

Figure 13 – Cooks River Valley Visual Study
            Criteria for Landscape Quality...... 228

Figure 14 – Cooks River Valley Visual Study
            Road Options – Landscape Quality.... 231

Figure 15 – Cooks River Valley Visual Study
            Road Options – Prominent Areas...... 234

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